Mem and Cog exam 3

deductive reasoning

rigidly structured argumentation which, if accepted, must absolutely be true: from general to specific

Inductive reasoning

structured argumentation (can be rigid but not necessarily) which, if accepted, is probably true : from specific to general

Valid

an argument is __ if the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises

sound

an argument is ___ if it is valid and the premises are true

Modus ponens argument

“If P, then Q'“ “P is true” “Therefore, Q is true” Valid argument, we call P the antecedent and Q the consequent

Modus tollens agrument

P → Q; NOT Q; therefore NOT P: this is denying the consequent, it’s a valid argument

Denying the antecedent

“If I am hungry, I will eat a sandwich; I am not hungry; therefore, I will not eat a sandwich” not valid argument

Affirm the consequent

If I am hungry, I will eat a sandwich

I will eat a sandwich →means → I am hungry

Not a valid argument

motor theory

the systems associated with perceiving and producing speech are closely related; speech perception is innate and species-specific

auditory theory

speech perception is derived from the properties of the auditory system; it is not species-specific

evidence for auditory theory

some data suggests that categorical perception functions in chinchillas similar to humans - not species specific; the place of articulation (ex closed lips or tongue location) of a consonant can be reliably predicted using only the sounds made by the consonant

Well-defined problems

the conditions and aspects of the problem are clearly specified without ambiguities or uncertainties (ex: games, mazed, math problems)

Ill-defined problems

the conditions and aspects are not clearly specified. Ambiguities and uncertainties cloud the paths to the goal (ex attaining a desired career)

Task environment

from Newell and Simon; refers to the objective factors of a problem outside of cognitive processes

problem space

from Newell and Simon; refers to the mental representation of the task environment wherein the problem-solving process occurs

problem state

from Newell and simon; under umbrella of problem space; refers to a past, present, or future state in the problem solving situation

problem operator

from Newell and simon; under umbrella of problem space; refers to the means by which a problem solver can move from one state to another

algorithm

a systematic procedure which is certain to produce a solution to a problem: involves searching all possible problem states to derive a solutions, perfectly reliable but sometimes immensely time-consuming, often intractable for the human mind

Heuristic

a method which can direct a partial search to find pertinent problem state information; more efficient than algorithms, but do not guarantee a solution

functional fixedness

an inability to use objects for purposes other than their intended functions or designs

Normative model

these attempt to predict how humans ought to behave or what would be the most optimal - also called “rational” model

descriptive models

these attempt to predict actual human behavior without regard for what is optimal

Transitivity principle

if A is preferred over B, and B is preferred over C, then A is preferred over C (from normative modeling)

Non-contradiction principle

if A is preferred over B, B is not preferred over A (from normative modeling)

Expected value theory

(ex of normative model) is an early model in economics designed to predict how people determine monetary value (values are calculated by arithmetic)

Expected utility theory

(ex of normative model) followed from the foundation of expected value theory. In this case utility is accounted for, still in calculation

risk-seeking

when a problem is framed in terms of losses, people tend to be more willing to take the gamble/chance

risk-averse

when a problem is framed in terms of gains, people tend to be less willing to take the chances

Prospect theory

describes how people make decisions when presented with alternatives that involve risk, probability, and uncertainty. It holds that people make decisions based on perceived losses or gains.

Regret theory

provides another way researchers have attempted to account for certainty effects

availability Heuristic

the tendency of people to make judgments or decisions based upon what most readily comes to mind

representativeness heuristic

refers to cases in which an event is judged to be more likely if its features or properties are more like its category (ex: who is more likely to struggle with thirst: someone near a lake or desert?)

Anchoring and adjustment

a proposed heuristic by which people make estimates on the basis of some starting or baseline value, and adjust from that point with new information

Optimizing

the most basic approach to a decision with a vast array of choices is to examine every one of them and then select the best option

satisficing

refers to cases in which a decision maker will decline to investigate every single option available.

• a smaller subset is reviewed instead

• the best option among them is chosen assuming it is satisfactory even if not the best

Elimination by aspects

a process by which a decision can be reduced to its various components

• some aspect is considered, and any option not meeting this aspect is eliminated

• this repeats until all aspects are exhausted and/or one option remains

Affirming the antecedent

also called “modus ponens”, it’s a valid argument. “If I get an A on the test then I will pass the class; I got an A on the test, therefore, I will pass the class”

Denying the consequent

also called “modus tollens”, valid argument. If class is cancelled today, then professor would have notified. The professor did not notify us, therefore, class was not cancelled.

Base-rate neglect fallacy

We don’t know how the base rate of what percentage of people in the tested population have the disease in the first place. The true probability may be a lot lower than expected

Phonemes

refers to the smallest unit of sound in language ex: s(sit), s(shop)

Morphemes

represents the smallest units of meaning in language ex: “-ing” is another morpheme meaning “presently in occurrence”

Chomsky’s universal grammar

believed that humans are endowed with a set of structural rules that are innate

Conjunction Fallacy

a set of two or more specific conclusions is likelier than any single member of that same set, in violation of the laws of probability.