psychology exam 1

psychology definition

the scientific study of human and animal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

nativism vs. philosophical empiricism

nature vs nurture

nativism philosopher

Plato

philosophical empiricism philosopher

Aristotle

dualism/ mind-body problem

The position that mind and body are separate but can interact is called dualism, to indicate that behavior is caused by two things.

Berkeley Water "Experiment"

-> 1 hand -- ice cold water
-> 1 hand -- hot water
-> Both hands -- lukewarm water
-- the cold hand was warm and the hot hand was cold both in the same temperature of water

Scientific Method definition

pursuit of knowledge through systematic/ controlled observations, measurements, and testable hypotheses

Scientific Method Steps

Observations, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data Collection, Conclusion, share knowledge

phrenology definiton

Skull shape determines personality (genuine husband vs unreliable husband)

Phrenology flaws?

Skull shape does NOT equal brain topography

Wilhem Wundt & von Helmholtz

Helmholtz- interested in the speed of nerve impulses
Wundt- "father of psychology" & opened the first lab dedicated to physiological psych

Hysteria definition

- Exaggerated or uncontrollable emotion or excitement
- common diagnosis in 1800s
- typically diagnosed in women

Hypnosis definition

altered state of mind, or trance

why was hysteria a bad diagnosis?

subjective nature, gender bias, lack of scientific validity, and the potential harm it caused to those diagnosed with it.

Psychoanalysis problems?

- Worked in isolation from other psychologists
- Theories were often non-falsifiable
- Hypnosis patients are often susceptible to suggestion
- Freud's theories were often anti-women
- Did not use the scientific method

psychoanalysis success?

- Unconscious and subconscious
- Memories are not perfect

Behaviorism

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

the black box problem (cognitions)

- Don't involve observable behavior
- Difficult to study!

behavioral neuroscience

links psychological processes to neurons, brain structures, and nervous system

Who is Karen Horney?

- clinician
- "Feminine psychology"
- womb envy theory

Which other psychologist did Karen Horney push back against?

Sigmund Freud (penis envy theorist)

Fransis Sumner

- first black American to earn PhD in psychology
- Early 1900's: helped establish the Howard University HBCU psychology department

Kenneth & Mamie Clark

- Brown v. Board of Education case 1950s
- Perception of white and black dolls
- Black children still preferred to play with white dolls

Empiricism

- observation -> knowledge
- Collect a series of observations
- Is every phenomenon observable?

Theories

explanation of phenomena based on empirical evidence (observations)

hypothesis

a prediction statement that can be proven wrong (falsifiable)

variable

a factor/condition that can vary in type or degree

operational definition

exactly what way the variable will be defined in the research (as specific as possible).

instrument of measurement def

anything that can record/detect when the variable occurs

instrument of measurement examples

timer, ruler, even other humans

validity

- the behavior/questionnaire actually taps into the variable
- Facial expressions? (RBF)

reliability

produces consistent and stable results

power

is able to detect even small effects

Why are humans tricky test subjects?

- Complex: brain and behavior are incredibly intricate
- Variable: no two people are exactly the same
- Smart: people know when they are being "tested"
- Demand characteristics
- naturalistic observation

demand characteristics

during studies, participants want to do what they believe is expected of them.

what can we do to reduce demand characteristics?

- Make studies anonymous
- Measure behavior that is harder to voluntarily control
-disguise the purpose of the study

naturalistic observation definition

naturally record evidence about people without ANY interference or control

naturalistic observation pros

- Behavioral in natural environments
- Little to no demand characterizes
- Good start to forming/refining a theory

naturalistic observation cons

- Lack of control
- Too many other variables are present that aren't accounted for
- Cannot test casual relationships

observer bias definition

measurement can be impacted by human error/bias

what can we do to reduce observer bias?

- Reduce human involvement in measurement
- Double-blind technique: neither observer nor participant know the hypothesis
--- Condition of the variable is unknown (pill vs. sugar pill)

double- blind technique

neither observer nor participant know the hypothesis

correlation design defintion

describe a statistical relationship between two variables
- ASK people what they do/think

positive correlation design

as one variable increases, the second variable increases
OR as one variable decreases, the second variable decreases
- positive if same direction!!!

negative correlation design

as one variable increases, the second variable decreases
- museum and reality TV example problem

correlation design pros

- Can determine strength + direction of 2 variables' relationship
----Helpful when forming/refining hypotheses
- Variables that are hard/unethical to manipulate
----Smoking, spanking, etc.

correlation design cons

Cannot determine causality with 100% certainty***

pearson's r

statistic that describes direction and strength of a correlation

correlation strength

r= 0 NO relationship
r= -0.3, -0.5,-0.7 is negative
r= +0.3,+0.5, +0.7 is positive

third-variable problem

an unmeasured third variable may be influencing both tested variables

self-selection problem

a participant chooses their own environment

the direction problem

Which variable causes which?

experimental design definiton

- Does taking gyzophil cause uncontrollable sneezing?
- Medicine type → independent variable (IV)
- Gyzophil = experimental group
- Sugar pill = control group
- Sneezing → dependent variable (DV)

experimental design pros

- Can test causal relationships!
- Can often easily be repeated/replicated

experimental design cons

- Some variables cannot be manipulated (ethical, feasible)
- Sometimes feel "artificial"
- Demand characteristics

descriptive statistics

- numbers (stats) that describe the sample
- Sample: data points collected in the study

key components to an experiment

- Independent variable
- dependent variable
- control group
- experimental group
- random assignment
- random selection
- control of extraneous variables (EVs)

independent variable definition and ex

- variable that is manipulated
- video game played

dependent variable definition and ex

- The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.
- aggression or # of times punching bag was hit

control vs experimental group

- experimental group is the group that is tested on
--- group that played GTA
- control group (the one that isn't tested on)
--- group that played animal crossing

random assignment

participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

controlling extraneous variables

- Provides control
- temperature and noise
- time of day
- collect data from large groups + random assignment

normal distribution definition

- bell-shaped curve probability density
- characterized by mean of distribution 'μ' and standard deviation of distribution 'σ'

what shape is shown by normal distribution?

bell curve

mean

statistical average
- (1+2+3+4)/4 = 2.5

range

how fart apart the highest and lowest are
- (1,2,3,4) -> 4-1= 3

standard deviation

- Describes average distance from the mean
- Small SD → scores are not spread out
- Large SD → scores are super spread out

internal validity

- great experiments will have HIGH internal validity
- Controlled EVs
- Our ODs were valid
- Random assignment

external validity

- Realistic as possible (natural)
- Sample represents the average population

the IRB

- institutional review board
- Researchers, instructors, and people from the community

the ethical checklist

- informed consent
--- written
- freedom from coercion
--- may leave at any time
- protection from harm
--- avoid harm
- justified deception
---lying to participants must be justified
- debriefing
--- reveal purpose of study
- confidentiality
--- personal info kept private

neuron

- Cell in the nervous system
- Comprise the brain
- Communicate and produce output constantly!

nervous system

the network of neurons that carry information to and from the brain

cell body (soma)

- the largest part of the neuron
- keeps the neuron alive
- energy production

nucleus

houses your DNA

dendrites

- tree branches
- Point of contact with other neurons
- Receive messages and relay to the cell body, the axon

axon

relay those messages down the neuron

myelin sheath

- insulates the axon
- increases the speed of messages

axon terminal

- tip of the axon
- communicates to another neuron's dendrites

synapse

gap between the axon terminal & a dendrite

resting potential

-70 millivolts

action potential

Sending electric signal down the axon

activation shreshold

- -55 millivolts
- All or nothing!

refractory period

- Action potential cant be initiated again yet
- Must return to -70 mv (resting potential) first

synaptic transmission

Neuron releases neurotransmitters across synaptic gas to another neuron

neurotransmitter

- Chemicals that carry specific information
- Carried within vesicles (bag-like)

autoreceptor

- Detects the amount of NTs in the gap
- Will cease transition if too much in the synaptic gap

receptor sites

- Located on the dendrite
- Receives the NTs

reuptake

NTs are reabsorbed into the axon terminal

enzyme deactivation

Enzymes destroy excess NTs

the primary neruotransmitters

- acetylcholine (Ach)
- Glutamate
- GABA
- dopamine
norepinephrine
- serotonin
- endorphins

acetylcholine (Ach)

- voluntary muscle control
- attention, learning, sleeping, dreaming, memory
- if low related to Alzheimer's disease

glutamate

- Primary excitatory NT
- Enhances communication between neurons
- Tells a neuron to fire!

GABA

- Primary inhibitory NT
- Stops a neuron from firing
- Seizers- abundance of glutamate OR lack of GABA

dopamine

- Motivation (reward), pleasure, arousal
- Drug addiction
- Schizophrenia- high levels of dopamine
- Parkinson's disease- low levels of dopamine

noreoinephrine

- Heightened awareness (vigilance)
- On alert for danger

serotonin

- Sleep regulation
- Eating
- Aggression regulation
- Mood disorders (depression, anxiety)- poor regulation

endorphins

- Dulling pain
- Enhancing emotion
- Exercise

agonist

- Increase NT function
- L-dopa for Parkinson's' disease (dopamine)

antagonist

- Block NTs function
- Bets blockers for high blood pressure (epinephrine)