AQA A Level Politics - Liberalism

Historical Context - John Stuart Mill

-JS MIll wrote at a time of rapid industrialisation and urbanisation in Britain, which marks a significant change from the context of earlier liberal thought.

Human Nature - John Stuart Mill

-Emphasis on rational nature of humans, but also focused on 'individuality', which is the potential possessed by individuals to improve themselves.

-Mill placed more emphasis on humanity's capability for progress.

Society - John Stuart Mill

-He argued that individuals should be free to live their lives as they wish unless their actions harm the rights of others in society; the so-called 'harm principle'.

-The state should only intervene if harm is caused to others.

The State - John Stuart Mill

-He approved of democracy and the extension of the franchise, although he did not support universal suffrage.

-JS Mill argued that citizens needed a certain level of education to enable them to vote.

The Economy - John Stuart Mill

-Mill believed that laissez-faire capitalism was vital to ensure progress in the economy, and to enable individuals to fulfill their potential.

Historical Context - Mary Wollstonecraft

-Writing in 1792 during the French Revolution, Wollstonecraft was inspired by the ideals of equality espoused in France.

Human Nature - Mary Wollstonecraft

-Men and women have equal capacity as rational beings.

Society - Mary Wollstonecraft

-Society was losing out by preventing women from fulfilling their potential.

The State - Mary Wollstonecraft

-The state should be a republic which guarantees equal rights for men and women.

The Economy - Mary Wollstonecraft

-The economy would be invigorated by the contribution of liberated women enjoying the benefits of equal rights.

Historical Context - John Locke

-17th century writer during the Civil War.

-His liberal ideas challenged the old belief in the divine right of kings.

-At this stage, liberalism was a revolutionary challenge to the existing political system.

Human Nature - John Locke

-Humans are rational beings, guided by self-interest.

-However, as rational beings people realise that co-operation with others is in their own best interests.

The State - John Locke

-The state exists as the result of a 'social contract' between citizens and the government.

-The legitimacy of the state derives from the 'consent of the governed'.

Society - John Locke

-Society predates the state.

-In the state of nature there are natural rights and laws which derive from humans' rational nature, e.g. the right to individual freedom and to own property.

The Economy - John Locke

-Property ownership is the basis of the economy and individuals should be free to trade in the pursuit of their own interests.

-The state should protect property rights and arbitrate disputes.

Historical Context - T.H. Green

-Also writing during the Industrial Revolution, slightly later than JS Mill, when it was becoming more apparent that socio-economic conditions for much of the population meant that millions of people could not fulfill their potential.

Human Nature - T.H. Green

-He shared the classical liberal, optimistic view of human nature but argued that many living in poverty were unable to fulfill their potential as individuals due to the difficulties of breaking out of the socio-economic constraints which industrialisation has caused.

The State - T.H. Green

-He argued that the state needed to be more interventionist in order to create the conditions to allow people to fulfill their potential.

-The state needed to be an 'enabling state'.

Society - T.H. Green

-He emphasised the importance of equality of opportunity in order to achieve 'social justice'.

-The enabling state was necessary to improve the health, education and living conditions of the poor in order to create opportunities for them to fulfill their potential.

The Economy - T.H. Green

-Generally supportive of laissez-faire capitalism, however, accepted the need for some government intervention and regulation in order to improve the conditions of the poor within the capitalist structure.

Historical Context - John Rawls

-Writing in the Cold War period, he was aiming to reinvigorate liberalism in the context of greater polarisation between left and right wing politics during the 1960s and 1970s.

Human Nature - John Rawls

-He emphasised the empathetic side of human nature to a greater degree than earlier liberal thinkers.

-He saw humans as self-interested but also concerned about the welfare of those around them.

The State - John Rawls

-He was a strong advocate of the enabling state, arguing that intervention is necessary in order to create equality of opportunity.

Society - John Rawls

-He put forward a 'thought experiment' arguing that if individuals had to choose a society from behind a 'veil of ignorance', they would choose a fairer, more equal society, which ensured equality of opportunity.

The Economy - John Rawls

-Comfortable with the capitalist economy alongside state intervention to ensure poorer citizens can have equality of opportunity (but not equality of outcome).

Historical Context - Betty Friedan

-Writing during the 1960s when significant social change was occuring throughout society.

Human Nature - Betty Friedan

-Women and men are equally capable, however society has conditioned women to think of themselves as inferior.

The State - Betty Friedan

-The state is male-dominated but is capable of change if people can be educated to realise the fundamental equality of men and women.

-The state should pass laws to bring about greater equality.

Society - Betty Friedan

-Traditional society has conditioned women to adopt certain gender roles, e.g. childcare and home-making.

-This cultural conditioning has been communicated through the media, arts, education and must be challenged.

The Economy - Betty Friedan

-Women are capable of making significant contributions to the capitalist economy if they are freed up by new laws to overcome the historical gender bias.