Socio-Cultural - Studies

Tajfel et al. (1971)

Aim:
To investigate the minimal conditions required for intergroup discrimination to occur, exploring how people categorize themselves into groups and show bias toward in-group members.
Method:
Participants were randomly assigned to groups based on trivial criteria (such as preferences for paintings). They were then asked to allocate rewards to other participants, with the opportunity to favor those in the same group or discriminate against those in the other group.
Findings:
Even with minimal group membership (based on arbitrary preferences), participants showed a tendency to favor their own group (in-group bias) and discriminate against the out-group, indicating that categorization alone was sufficient to create intergroup bias.

Tajfel Science

Social Identity Theory: Tajfel's research supports Social Identity Theory (SIT), which suggests that individuals define themselves based on group membership (in-group vs. out-group). This study demonstrated how even meaningless group divisions lead to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination.

Bandura et al. (1961)

Aim:
To investigate how children learn and imitate aggressive behaviors through observational learning by watching an adult model.
Method:
Children were exposed to an adult model who displayed either aggressive or non-aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll. The children were then allowed to interact with the doll, and their behavior was observed and recorded.
Findings:
Children who observed the aggressive model were more likely to imitate aggressive actions, such as hitting the doll, compared to those who observed the non-aggressive model. The study demonstrated that observational learning (learning by watching others) influences behavior, especially when the model is perceived as a role model.

Bandura Science

Social Learning Theory (SLT): Bandura’s research is foundational for Social Learning Theory, which proposes that people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling. This study showed that children learned aggressive behaviors simply by observing an adult.

Hamilton and Gifford (1976)

Aim:
To explore how stereotyping can arise from illusory correlations, particularly in the context of minority groups.
Method:
Participants were presented with information about two groups: a majority group and a minority group. The groups were described in terms of positive and negative behaviors, with the minority group exhibiting fewer positive behaviors overall. Participants were then asked to rate the groups.
Findings:
Participants tended to overestimate the frequency of negative behaviors exhibited by the minority group, even though the overall number of positive and negative behaviors was the same. This bias was caused by the illusory correlation between the minority group and the negative behaviors.

Hamilton Science

Stereotype Formation: The study shows how stereotypes can form when people incorrectly associate certain traits (e.g., negative behaviors) with specific groups, often due to the illusory correlation between the minority status of the group and the behaviors they exhibit.

Social Categorization and In-group/Out-group Bias: This study also relates to social categorization, as it shows how individuals assign characteristics to groups based on minimal or erroneous information, leading to biased judgments of in-groups and out-groups.

Stone et al. (1999)

Aim:
To investigate how stereotypes related to athletic ability affect individuals' performance in sports.
Method:
African American and White participants were asked to play a basketball game, with some participants told that the test was a measure of natural athletic ability while others were told it was a measure of sport intelligence.
Findings:
African American participants performed better when told the task was related to natural athletic ability, while White participants performed better when the task was framed as testing sport intelligence. This demonstrated that stereotypes about race and athleticism influenced performance through stereotype threat and self-fulfilling prophecies.

Stone Science

Stereotype Threat: This study demonstrates the concept of stereotype threat, which occurs when individuals perform worse due to the anxiety of confirming negative stereotypes about their group.

Brown and Kulik (1977)

Aim:
To investigate whether emotionally significant events are remembered more vividly and accurately than other events, proposing the concept of flashbulb memories.
Method:
Participants were asked to recall their memories of events that had emotional significance to them, particularly those that were unexpected, such as the assassination of John F. Kennedy or Martin Luther King Jr.. They were also asked how they felt at the time of hearing the news, who told them, and where they were.
Findings:
Participants reported vivid and detailed memories of the events, even years later. The memories were more consistent across individuals when compared to memories of other events, suggesting that flashbulb memories are distinct in their emotional intensity and durability.

Brown Science

Flashbulb Memory: Brown and Kulik's research is foundational to the theory of flashbulb memories, which are memories of emotionally significant events that are particularly vivid, detailed, and long-lasting. These memories seem to be different from regular memories due to the emotional intensity associated with the event.