Psychological Science: Key Terms and Concepts

Flashcards covering key vocabulary and concepts from a Psychology lecture.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Scientific method

The process of testing ideas about the world through setting up situations that test our ideas, making careful observations, and analyzing whether the data fit with our ideas.

Theory

Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational definition

Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Descriptive research

A systematic, objective observation of people with the goal to provide a clear, accurate picture of people’s behaviors, thoughts, and attributes.

Case study

Examines one individual in depth to provide fruitful ideas but cannot be used to generalize conclusions.

Naturalistic observation

Records behavior in natural environment and describes but does not explain behavior, although it can be revealing.

Survey and interview

Examine many cases in less depth. Results depend on random sampling of the population.

Correlation

An observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other

Positive correlation

Indicates a direct relationship where two things increase together or decrease together.

Negative correlation

Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases.

Correlation coefficient

Provides a statistical measure of how closely two things vary together and how well one predicts the other.

Variable

Includes anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

Illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when only a minor or no relationship actually exists.

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment exposed to the treatment.

Control group

The group in an experiment not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Double-blind procedure

Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment.

Placebo effect

Results caused by expectations alone.

Independent variable

Factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding variable

Factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect.

Dependent variable

Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Ethics codes of APA and BPS

Obtain potential participants’ informed consent before the experiment begins, protect participants from harm and discomfort, keep information about individual participants confidential, and fully debrief people (explain the research afterward).

Mode

Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

Arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

Middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation

Computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal curve (normal distribution)

Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer occur near the extremes

Statistical significance

Indicates the likelihood that a result could have happened by chance but does not say anything about the importance of the result.