DP Exam #2

Newland, UF F25, Development Psychology Exam #2 Flashcards

Height and Weight at ages 2 and 6

By age two they are about 36 inches tall, 25-30 pounds. By age 6 they are about 46 inches tall and around 46 pounds.

Growth After Infancy

Growth slows after infancy and there’s a lot of variation between individual kids depending on sex, country, economic factors, diet, etc. They will lose the “baby fat” and become stronger while the head-to-body ratio evens out.

Overweight

A BMI between the 85th-95th percentile

Obesity

BMI of 95th percentile or higher. In the US, there is a rapidly increasing rate of this from a combination of people’s inherited genes as well as their environments. ⅕ adolescents are overweight, which increases rates of obesity which has to do with decreased exercise and increase in sedentary activities (TV, social media, etc.)

Food Intake for Children (Self-Monitoring)

Nutritionally, children are good at maintaining appropriate food intake. Slower growth means that less food is needed. As long as parents provide nutritional foods, expose children to a wide variety of foods, and allow children to develop their own preferences, they will be fine!

Illness and Infectious Diseases for Preschool Children

Preschool children will get 6-8 colds/year on average. Helps children build immunity, coping skills for more severe illnesses, and empathy

Lead poisoning

More common for children living in poverty which is a very high risk

Injuries

The biggest risk to preschool age children which are related to their physical activity, curiosity, lack of judgement, and risk-taking as well as differences in gender/ethnicity/economics

Brain Growth in Preschool Years

The brain grows faster than any other part of the body during these years such that by age 5, the brain has already reached around 90% of its adult weight. The connections between neurons and amount of myelin is increasing, which allows for increased communication speed & growth of cognitive/motor skills.

Corpus callosum + Specialization of Brain halves

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres, becomes thicker and the halves of the brain becomes specialized, though individual and cultural differences can lead to differences in specializations

Lateralization

When certain cognitive functions become more localized to one hemisphere of the brain than the others are/do

Left vs Right Hemisphere of the Brain

Left is generally more involved with verbal skills (speaking, reading, thinking, reasoning, logic). Right is more involved in nonverbal skills (spatial reasonings, pattern recognition, music, emotions, creativity)

Resiliency in the Brain

For the most part the two hemispheres will work together and since the brain is, if either side is damaged then the other half can pick up the slack

Myelination of the Reticular Formation

Associated with attention and concentration, could be related to children’s growing attention span and increased memory

Gross Motor Development and Myelination

More general body movements such as jumping, hopping, skipping, running, etc. that is not very coordinated or balanced. As they grow up, they are more able to do both more physical activity but also able to coordinate said activities to be more controlled/accurate as they gain greater control over their muscles so their skills become more refined. Associated with brain development, myelination, practice, and activity level. There are gender differences such as how boys can jump higher and throw a ball further but girls are better when it comes to balancing on one foot or doing jumping jacks but there is overlap and variation between boys and girls. Gross motor development includes gains related to improved muscle coordination with the differences between genders being very little until the later years. Flexibility, balance, agility, and force.

Potty Training

The average age has shifted from around 18 months in 1992 to 30 months now. Could be explained by the differing camps of thought, being either “as early and quick as possible” or “when they’re ready” though official guidelines prefer the latter. Daytime control usually comes before nighttime control.

Fine Motor Skills

Skills increase a lot from 3-5 years old like drawing and shoelaces. Drawing combines multiple fine motor skills and cognitions that progress sequentially. Fine motor development happens after gross motor development as this is more coordinated. Skills become more complex, likely in relation to increased brain myelination. Ages 6-7, they can tie their own shoes, fasten buttons, write/draw better. At age 8 they can use each hand independently. From 10-11 their fine motor skills are almost adult like.

Handedness

The clear preference for using one hand over the other is, which is sometimes evident in infancy but usually happens during the preschool years; about 10% are left-handed. No clear results on if handedness relates to other factors.

Preoperational Stage

Preoperational stage is from ages 2-7, when children develop symbolic thinking and mental reasoning which allows more make-believe play to occur but aren’t quite yet capable of operations. They have centration, are egocentric, but get conservation.

Symbolic Thinking

The ability to use a mental symbol, word, or object to represent something that isn’t physically present and mental reasoning which allows more make-believe play to occur

Operations

Organized, formal, logical mental processes

Centration

Concentrate on one limited aspect of a stimulus whilst ignoring other aspects, like focusing on a superficial/obvious aspect of it.

Conservation

The knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of an object. Preschoolers often cannot do this because of their tendency towards centration.

Transformation in the Preoperational stage

Transformation is the process by which one state is changed to another that preoperational children are unable to envision the way an adult would be able to

Egocentric thought in Childhood

Since they don’t understand that others have different perspectives than their own, they think everyone sees the world the way they do; not intentionally selfish or rude, they genuinely just don’t have the ability to consider that yet. Connected to the theory of mind; once they have it, they can take other perspectives.

Intuitive thought

The ability to understand something instinctively, without conscious reasoning or proof, relying instead on immediate perceptions, prior experience, and “gut feelings”. Helps in their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world that is related to inherent curiosity

Functionality

Events and outcomes are related to one another in fixed patterns

Identity

Understanding things stay the same, regardless of changes to the appearance, shape, or size

Criticisms to Piaget

His perspective is limited on a relatively small number of children, underestimated children’s capabilities, children are likely able to overcome centration/conservation earlier than predicted, cognitive skills are probably more continuous than stage-like, focused on deficiencies

Information processing

Looks at development by focusing on quantitative changes in children’s cognitive abilities like understanding numbers (complex) and memory development

Autobiographical Memory

The memory of particular events from your own life, which has little accuracy until age 3, then has gradual improvements after that. Depends on how vivid or meaningful an event is and how soon it is accessed

Scripts

Broad representations of events and their order, which aids in the organization of memory. Relies on well-defined and testable concepts to provide a clear and logical account of cognitive development, largely ignores social and cultural factors, pays too much attention to the individual processes without painting a comprehensive picture of cognitive development.

Vygotsky’s Social and Cultural contexts

Deemed these to be vital to cognitive development and thought that children are apprentices who actively learn through guided participation with adults and other peer mentors, which contrasts Piaget’s view of children being “little scientists” to learn.

ZPD

Zone of proximal development, which is the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, perform a task independently, but can do so if provided with appropriate help. Information must be presented during the ZPD for learning to occur. Must be new enough to be intriguing but also not too difficult.

Scaffolding

Support provided by parents and other mentors that encourages independence and cognitive growth; assistance is provided until a new skill is learned

Cultural Tools

Actually physical objects and intellectual/conceptual frameworks for problem solving integral to the lifestyle of where the child is growing up. Research supports the importance of social interaction and cultural factors in development

Limitations to Vygotsky

Lack of precision, being hard to test, not discussing how basic cognitive processes develop, and only focused on more broad factors

Language Development from 3-6

Rapid development, reaching around 14,000 words by 6 aka learning a new word every 2 hours on average

Fast mapping

The process in which new words are associated with their meaning

Syntax & Grammar

Children also learn how to use plurals, possessives, past tense, etc. as well as developing an understanding of syntax (combining words and phrases to form sentences) and grammar (the system of rules that guides both language and communication). They might overextend grammar rules, and may be more accurate at 3 than 4 because of the new words they learn but lack of rules they know.

Private speech & Pragmatics

Children’s speech that is spoken and directed to themselves that allows them to try out new ideas, facilitate thinking, problem-solve, and control behaviour. Precursor to internal dialogue with have as adults. This is a great way for children to practice pragmatics (aspect of language related to communicating effectively and appropriately with others)

Social Speech

Speech directed toward and meant to be understood by others where the child needs to be able to take another person’s perspective to do so

Language by SES

Children in higher income households hear more spoken words and by age 4, children in welfare households are exposed to 13-30 million fewer words more than affluent children. The type of children differs as well since children in welfare households are more often told prohibitions like “stop” or “no”

TV from 2-7

Many households with children 2-7 have television on most of the time in their homes, or on iPads. The quality of the tv show/videos/etc. are better/important for you to consider when letting them watch things.

TV Time for Younglings

The american academy of pediatrics suggests limiting television exposures; no television until the age of 2, and only 1-2 hours of programming (of quality) each day after that

Sesame Street

A popular educational program for children in the US that helps give children larger vocabularies, read more books, and perform higher on several measures of verbal fluency and mathematics by the time they reach ages 6 and 7

Out-of-home Care

Before formal schooling are in child-care centers, home child-care, preschool, etc.; rates have increased due to more parents working outside the home to about 75% of children. Evidence of cognitive and social benefits when children are involved in some type of educational activity before formal schooling.

Children in Child-Care’s Performance

Perform at least as good or better than children at home. Their intellectual development is shown by increased verbal fluency, memory advantages, and sometimes a higher IQ. Their social development is shown by them being more self-confident, independent, and knowledgeable about the world. Particularly beneficial to disadvantaged and at-risk children. Some negative outcomes are evidence of lower respect for adults, compliance, and politeness while aggression might increase.

Features of High Quality childcare

Well-trained providers, up-to-date training, appropriate overall size and ratio of adults to children (10:1 or better), carefully planned and coordinated curriculum, rich language environment with lots of conversation, caregivers are sensitive to children’s emotional and social needs, and more

Developmentally Appropriate

Children need an education practice that is based on both typical development and children’s unique characteristics abilities and provides an environment where learning is encouraged, not pushed

Psychosocial development

Changes in individuals’ understanding of both themselves and others behaviour, where each of Erikson’s stages is a conflict that the individual must overcome

Initiative vs Guilt Stage

Children from 3-6 want to act independently and are eager to try new tasks without help, and get parental support for it. If parents punish mistakes and discourage their attempts, the children will feel guilty.

Self-concept

A person’s identity or set of beliefs that define who they are. Preschoolers can start to label what makes them different from others based on emotions, attitudes, and other observable characteristics though they can overestimate their skills/abilities

Collectivistic Orientation

Places an emphasis on group cohesion and interdependence, often found in East Asian cultures

Individualistic Orientation

In many Western cultures, there is an emphasis on personal identity and the uniqueness of the individualChildren are able to show their self-concept through things like show-and-tell, talking to adults, peer conversations, etc.

Awareness of Racial Identity

Eventually in preschool/early elementary school they become more aware of racial and ethnic memberships that are integral to their identities, which develops slowly throughout childhood and is influenced by the attitudes of others around them and the general environment or culture

Gender Identity

By age 2 they are able to understand gender and consistently label themselves are male/female and begin to act on it in their toys/play mate choices.

Biological Perspectives

From biological influences, psychologists are able to guess that hormones affect gender-based behaviours and that there are biological differences in the structures of male/female brains

Evolutionary Approach

Posits that the differences between genders is seen as serving biological goals to increase reproduction (more aggressive men, more nurturing women)

Psychoanalytic Perspective/Identification

Posits that children become similar to their same-sex parent by adopting their attitudes and values in a process known as identification. This is elated to Freud’s stages of sexual development and the Oedipus complex

Social Learning Theory in Relation to Gender

Children learn gender-related behaviour and expectations by observing others in this, such as in books or tv and video game media that perpetuates stereotypes; exacerbated by phrases like “act like a lady” = be polite and “man up” meaning for someone to toughen up

Looking at gender identity from the child’s POV, the Cognitive Perspective on Gender Identity

Thinks that children develop “rules” about gender based on their own ideas of gender through a gender schema to organize relevant gender information that is strict and rigid and include behaviour/appearance

Gender constancy

The understanding that people are permanently male or female, depending on fixed and unchangeable biological factors

Transgender vs Androgyny

Feel that their gender differs from the sex they were assigned at birth, which can be expressed from very young while androgyny is following gender roles that encompass characteristics of both sexes

Social Activity before vs after 3

Being in the same place at the same time, but during the preschool years they’ll develop real friendships based on desire for companionship (play and fun) at first then they pay more attention to trust, shared interests, and trust

Play

An important part of early friendship that helps in promoting the social, cognitive, and physical aspects development

Functional Play

Such as skipping or playing with toys, this is the simple, repetitive activity for the sake of being active

Constructive Play

Around age 4 is when this develops (when children manipulate objects to produce or build something, helping physical/cognitive skills like fine muscle movements, problem solving skills, and complex social skills)

Onlooker Play

Passively watching others play but not necessarily participating typical during early preschool or in new groups of people

Parallel play

Playing near each other with similar toys or materials but not interacting with each other, which is also typical in early preschool

Associative play

Interaction only via sharing toys or materials from each other, but not working together, that develops over the preschool years

Cooperative Play

Genuine interactive play working towards a common goal, which involves turn-taking, specific games, and more that tends to be joyful overall but can cause arguments

Theory of mind

Helps children see the world from someone else’s perspective and understand how others think, why they behave certain ways, and others’ emotions/motives. Could be related to brain maturation, developing language skills, and the increase in social interactions/pretend play that they have

False-belief-understanding

An understanding that not only can others have different beliefs from one’s own, but that they can be false (measured with the false belief task that develops by the end of the preschool years)

Authoritarian parenting

Controlling, rigid, cold, their word is law, strict/unquestioning obedience, no tolerance of disagreement, children tend to be withdrawn/not sociable or friendly and overly dependent on parents (girls) or hostile (boys)

Permissive parenting

High in warmth but low in control, too lax/inconsistent with feedback and rules, requires little of their children who end up unexpectedly similar to authoritarian parents, dependent/moody and withdrawn with low self-control/social skills

Authoritative parenting

Loving and supportive parents that still set clear/consistent limits and explanations for rules/rationale for punishments, best outcome for children

Uninvolved/neglectful parenting

Shows almost no interest in their children, displays indifferent or rejecting behaviour, emotionally detached, their role is only basic survival needs, can result in neglect, children statistically fare the worst

Parenting Styles across the World

Parenting is largely impacted by cultures, since the values tend to differ across the globe. Depends on the cultural and familial and community influences. No two sets of parents are the exact same even if they parent similarly.

Abuse/yr in the US

3 million children every year are abused or neglected in the US. Risk factors include stress, physical punishment, unrealistic expectations

Psychological maltreatment

When parents or other caretakers harm children’s behavioural, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning. Can include neglect, but isn’t easily identified due to lack of outward signs. Victims suffer long-term damage like low self-esteem, depression, poor school performance, permanent brain changes, aggression, misbehaviour, and suicide

Resiliency

The ability to overcome circumstances that place children at high risk for damage (psychologically or physically) like abuse or poverty, which allows people to overcome their stress/trauma and be psychologically healthy adults. Resilient children are usually easy-going, affectionate, and easy to soothe as infants or have temperaments that evoke positive responses from caregivers.

Moral development

Changes in one’s sense of justice and right or wrong. The two main approaches are Piaget’s approach (underestimated the ages at which children’s moral skills develop, though) and the social learning approaches

Piaget’s Stages of Morality

Premoral then heteronomous morality, incipient cooperation, autonomous cooperation

Heteronomous Morality

From 4-7, where rules are unchangeable even if they don’t fully understand the rules yet + belief in immanent justice (breaking rules = immediate punishment) + don’t yet take intention into account when judging morality

Incipient cooperation

From 7-10, when games become more social but think that the rules are still unchangeable/passed down but better understand intentions

Autonomous Cooperation Stage

10+ years old where they realize people change rules so if everyone agrees, rules can be changed

Prosocial Behaviour

Behaviour benefitting others that is learned through positive reinforcement, watching, and imitating models

Abstract Modeling

Observing models pave the way for understanding the general rules and principles (watching a teacher be kind makes them want to be kind); increases with age

Empathy

The understanding of what someone else feels and feeling their emotions which grows as children gain increased ability to monitor and regulate emotional/cognitive responses; increased empathy leads to increased morality

Aggression

The intentional injury or harm to another person, which mild forms of are typical in preschool (such as pushing to sit in a specific chair)

Emotional self-regulation

As children develop this (the ability to adjust emotions to a desire state and level of intensity), they become less aggressive overall but doesn’t decrease for all children. Aggression is relatively stable → the most aggressive preschoolers tend to be aggressive later in life as well. They should learn this early on for best results/development!

Instrumental Aggression

Aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal. For example, stealing a desirable toy that another child has where the goal isn’t to hurt another child. Mainly seen in young boys, who are more aggressive overall as they are often told to be assertive from a young age.

Relational Aggression

Nonphysical that is intended to hurt someone else’s feelings. More common in young girls, such as spreading rumours or name calling, since they are trained to value relationships more heavily than boys are.

Freud’s View on Aggression

Aggression was more of an instinct, but doesn’t fully explain it properly.

Social Learning Theory on Aggression/Learned Behaviour

Aggression develops directly through reinforcement or indirectly through exposure to models (like bobo doll) but no causal effect between media violence and aggression (though this was highly suspected earlier) but it is near impossible to conduct true experiments in the real-world settings so the results are only positively correlated and not causal

Cognitive approaches to Aggression

Emphasis on the importance of children’s interpretations of behaviours, aggression occurs when children incorrectly assume another’s intentions and react based off incorrect assumption, limitation

Physical growth from 6-11

In terms of both height and weight, the development continues but slows down around this time. Only grow 2-3 inches/year and gain 5-7 pounds/year; girls might be taller since girls get growth spurts earlier than boys do.

Nutrition for Growth

Vital to increased positive emotions, cognitive development, energy levels, self confidence, and decreasing anxiety levels

Learning disabilities

Discrepancies between the capacity to learn versus their actual achievements, such as dyslexia or adhd or autism. Disorders/impairments are more noticeable or officially diagnosed, especially school activity . Sensory impairments include visual, auditory, and speech impairments