overview of Thinking Geographically

Space

The abstract, geometric surface of the Earth imagined as an empty slate where objects (people, trees, buildings, cities) occupy specific locations and are separated by distance.

Place

A bounded area of human significance, often given a toponym, which can be as small as a room or as large as a continent and acquires meaning through cultural, historical, and functional attributes.

Activity space

The daily area where people conduct routine activities.

Sequent occupancy

The layered succession of cultural groups that shape a place over time (e.g., Santa Fe's Indigenous, Spanish, and modern American influences).

Scale

The relationship of an object or place to the Earth as a whole.

Map scale

Ratio of map distance to real-world distance (e.g., 1:24,000).

Relative (analysis) scale

The level of aggregation used in study (local, regional, national, global).

Regions

Categories of places that share a unifying characteristic.

Formal Regions

Regions defined by a homogeneous characteristic (e.g., language, climate).

Functional Regions

Also called nodal regions; influence radiates from a central point.

Vernacular Regions

Regions based on collective perception; may vary widely among residents.

Ecotone

Transition zone between biomes (e.g., the Sahel between Sahara and savanna).

Intervening opportunity

A nearer attraction that draws activity away from a farther one.

Absolute location

Fixed coordinates (latitude, longitude) expressed as 'lat°, lon° N/S/E/W'.

Relative location

Position described in reference to another known place or feature.

Latitude

Measures north-south distance from the Equator (0°).

Longitude

Measures east-west distance from the Prime Meridian (0°).

Prime Meridian

Runs through Greenwich because British naval chronometers enabled accurate sea-based longitude calculation in the 18th century.

Time Zones

Generally 15° of longitude per hour; political boundaries often modify them (e.g., a single zone for all of China).

Site

Physical characteristics of a place (e.g., New York City's deep harbor).

Situation

The place's relational context to other places (e.g., NYC's role as a trade hub on the Hudson River and Atlantic routes).

Absolute distance

Linear measurement (miles, km).

Relative distance

Expressed as interaction potential; explained by distance decay and Tobler's First Law.

Friction of distance

The cost/time barrier that reduces interaction over greater distances.

Space-Time Compression

Technological advances (air travel, Internet) reduce relative distance, increasing interaction frequency and intensity.

Human-Environmental Interaction

The two-way influence between societies and their environments, encompassing determinism, resource use, sustainability, and globalization.

Expansion Diffusion

Originates centrally, spreads outward (unequal distances).

Hierarchical Diffusion

Moves from larger to smaller places (first‑order → second‑order).

Contagious Diffusion

Radiates to nearby locations, often along transport routes.

Stimulus Diffusion

Underlying idea spreads, leading to new local variants.

Relocation Diffusion

People or ideas move across a barrier, then settle elsewhere.

Topographic Map

Contour lines, natural & built features; used for navigation and engineering.

Thematic Map

Focus on a single subject (e.g., population, weather).

Choropleth Map

Colored polygons that show density or rates (e.g., election results).

Isoline Map

Contour lines (isotherms, isobars) that depict continuous variables.

Dot-density Map

Dots representing quantity to visualize distribution (e.g., heart-attack cases).

Flow-line Map

Variable-thickness arrows that illustrate movement volumes (e.g., migration).

Cartogram

Distorted shapes proportional to data, emphasizing statistical information over geography.

Large-scale Map

Shows a small area with great detail (e.g., 1:50,000).

Small-scale Map

Shows a large area with less detail (e.g., 1:1,000,000).

Lambert Projection

Equal-area projection that preserves area but distorts shape.

Mercator Projection

Conformal projection that preserves shape but distorts area (e.g., Greenland appears huge).

Robinson / Goode's Homolosine Projection

Balances minor distortions in both area and shape.

Demographic Transition Model

A model that describes population changes over time.

Von Thünen's Isolated State Model

A model that explains agricultural land use in relation to a central market.

Central Place Theory

A model developed by Walter Christaller that explains the size and distribution of human settlements.

Concentric Zone Model

A model developed by Ernest Burgess that describes urban land use in concentric circles.

Sector Model

A model developed by Homer Hoyt that describes urban land use in sectors radiating from the center.

Multiple-Nuclei Model

A model developed by Chauncy Harris that describes urban land use with multiple centers.

Gravity Model

A mathematical model used in spatial analysis to predict interactions between locations.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Layers of spatial data linked to coordinates enabling spatial analysis.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Triangulates position from at least three Navstar satellites.

Remote Sensing

Captures visible, infrared, radar data; monitors wetlands loss, vegetation health, crop yields.

Ernest Burgess

Notable for the Concentric Zone Model.

Walter Christaller

Notable for Central Place Theory.

William Denevan

Known for studies on Native American depopulation.

Larry Ford & Ernst Griffin

Known for the Latin American city model.

Homer Hoyt

Known for the Sector Model.

Thomas Malthus

Known for Malthusian theory.

Friedrich Ratzel

Known as the father of human geography.

Walt Rostow

Known for Stages of Economic Growth.

Carl Sauer

Known for Possibilism and cultural landscape.

Johann von Thünen

Known for the Isolated State model.

Immanuel Wallerstein

Known for World-systems theory.

Alfred Weber

Known for Industrial location theory.