Principles of macroeconomics

Circular Flow Drawing

A diagram that views the economy as consisting of households and firms interacting in a good and services market and a labor market.

Command Economy

An economy where economic decisions are passed down from government authority and where the government owns the resources

Division of Labor

The way in which different workers divide required tasks to produce a good or service

Economics

The study of how humans make choices under the conditions of scarcity

Economies of Scale

When the average cost of producing each individual unit declines as total output increases

Exports

Products (goods and services) made domestically and sold abroad

Fiscal Policy

Economic policies that involve government spending and taxes

Globalization

The trend in which buying and selling in markets have increasingly crossed national borders

Goods and Services Market

A market in which firms are sellers of what they produce and households are buyers

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Measure of size of total production in an economy

Imports

Products (goods and services) made abroad and then sold domestically

Labor Market

The market in which households sell their labor as workers to business firms or other employers

Macroeconomics

The branch of economics that focuses on broad issues such as growth, unemployment, inflation, and trade balance

Market

Interaction between potential buyers and sellers; a combination of demand and supply

Market Economy

An economy where economic decisions are decentralized, private individuals own resources, and businesses supply goods and services based on demand

Microeconomics

The branch of economics that focuses on actions of particular agents within the economy, like households, workers, and business firms

Monetary Policy

Policy that involves altering the level of interest rates, the availability of credit in the economy, and the extent of borrowing

Private Enterprise

System where private individuals or groups of private individuals own and operate the means of production (resources and businesses)

Scarcity

When human wants for goods and services exceed the available supply

Specialization

When workers or firms focus on particular tasks for which they are well-suited within the overall production process

Theory

A representation of an object or situation that is simplified while including enough of the key features to help us understand the object or situation

Traditional Economy

Typically and agricultural economy where things are done the same as they have always been done

Underground Economy

A market where the buyers and sellers make transactions in violation of one or more government regulations

Allocative Effciency

When the mix of goods produced represents the mix that society most desires

Budget Constraint

All possible consumption combinations of goods that someone can afford, given the prices of goods, when all income is spent; the boundary of the opportunity set

Comparative Advantage

When a country can produce a good at a lower cost in terms of other goods; or when a country has a lower opportunity cost of production

Invisible Hand

Adam Smith’s concept that individuals' self-interested behavior can lead to positive social outcomes

Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility

As we consume more of a good or service, the utility we get from additional units of the good or service tends to become smaller than what we received from earlier units

Law of Diminishing Returns

As we add additional increments of resources to producing a good or service, the marginal benefit from those additional increments will decline

Marginal Analysis

Examination of decisions on the margin, meaning a little more or a little less from the status quo

Normative Statement

Statement which describes how the world should be

Opprtunity Cost

Measures cost by what we give up/forfeit in exchange; opportunity cost measures the value of the forgone alternative

Opportunity Set

All possible combinations of consumption that someone can afford given the prices of goods and the individuals’ income

Positive Statement

Statement which describes the world as it is

Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF)

A diagram that shows the productivity efficient combinations of two products that an economy can produce given the resources it has availablle

Productive Efficiency

When it in impossible to produce more of one good (or service) without decreasing the quantity produced of another good (or service)

Sunk Costs

Costs that we make in the past that we cannot recover

Utility

Satisfaction, usefulness, or value one obtains from consuming goods and services

Ceteris Paribus

Other things being equal

Complements

Goods that are often used together so that consumption of one good tends to enhance consumption of the other

Consumer Surplus

The extra benefit consumers receive from buying a good or service, measured by what the individuals would have been willing to pay minus the amount that they actually paid

Deadweight Loss

The loss in social surplus that occurs when a market produces and inefficient quantity

Demand

The relationship between price and the quantity demanded of a certain good or service

Demand Curve

A graphic representation of the relationship between price and quantity demanded of a certain good or service, with quantity on the horizontal axis and the price on the vertical axis

Demand Schedule

A table that shows a range of prices for a certain good or service and the quantity demanded at each price

Equilibrium

The situation where quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied; the combination of the price and quantity where there is no economic pressure from the surpluses or shortages that would cause price or quantity to change

Equilibrium Price

The price where quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied

Equilibrium Quantity

The quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal for a certain price level

Excess Demand

At the existing price, the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied; also called a shortage

Excess Supply

At the existing price, quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded; also called a surplus

Factors of Production

The resources such as labor, materials, and machinery that are used to produce goods and services; also called inputs

Inferior Good

A good in which the quantity demanded falls as income rises, and in which quantity demanded rises and income falls

Inputs

The resources such as labor, materials, and machinery that are used to produce goods and services; also called factors of production

Law of Demand

The common relationship that a higher price leads to a lower quantity demanded of a certain good or service and a lower price leads to a higher quantity demanded, while all other variables are held constant

Law of Supply

The common relationship that a higher price leads to a greater quantity demanded of a certain good or service and a lower price leads to a lower quantity demanded, while all other variables are held constant

Normal Good

A good in which the quantity demanded rises as income rises, and in which quantity demanded falls as income falls

Price

What a buyer pays for a unit of the specific good or service

Price Ceiling

A legal maximum price

Price Control

Government laws to regulate prices instead of letting market forces determine prices

Price Floor

A legal minimum price

Producer Surplus

The extra benefit producers receive from selling a good or service, measured by the price the producer actually received minus the price the producer would have been willing to accept

Quantity Demanded

The total number of units a good or service consumers are willing to purchase at a given price

Quantity Supplied

The total number of units of a good or service producers are willing to sell at a given price

Shift in Demand

When a change in some economic factor (other than price) causes a different quantity to be supplied at every price

Shift in Supply

When a change in some economic factor (other than price) causes a different quantity to be supplied at every price

Shortage

At the existing price, the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied; also called excess demand

Social Surplus

The sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus

Substitute

A good that can replace another to some extent, so that greater consumption of one good can mean less of the other

Supply

The relationship between price and the quantity supplied of a certain good or service

Supply Curve

A line that shows the relationship between price and quantity supplied on a graph, with quantity supplied on the horizontal axis and the price on the vertical axis

Supply Schedule

A table that shows a range of prices for a good or service and the quantity supplies at each price

Surplus

At the existing price, quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded; also called excess supply

Interest Rate

The “price” of borrowing in the financial market; a rate of return on an investment

Minimum Wage

A price floor that makes in illegal for an employer to pay employees less than a certain hourly rate

Usury Laws

Laws that impose an upper limit on the interest rate that lenders can change

Constant Unitary Elasticity

When a given percent price change in price leads to an equal percentage change in quantity demanded or supplied

Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand

The percentage change in the quantity of good A that in demanded as a result of a percentage change in the price of good B

Elastic Demand

When the elasticity of demand is greater than one, indicating a high responsiveness of quantity demanded or supplied to changes in price

Elastic Supply

When the elasticity of either supply is greater than one, indicating a high responsiveness of quantity demanded or supplied to changes in price

Elasticity

An economics concept that measures responsiveness of one variable to changes in another variable

Elasticity of Savings

The percentage change in the quantity of savings divided by the percentage change in interest rates

Inelastic Demand

When the elasticity of demand in less than one, indicating that a 1 percent increase in price paid by the consumer leads to less than a 1 percent change in purchases (and vice versa); this indicates a low responsiveness by consumers to price changes

Inelastic Supply

When the elasticity of supply in less than one, indicating that a 1 percent increase in price paid to the firm will result in a less than 1 percent increase in production by the firm; this indicates a low responsiveness of the firm to price increases (and vice versa if prices drop)

Infinite Elasticity

The extremely elastic situation of demand or supply where quantity changes by an infinite amount in response to any change in price; horizontal in appearance

Price Elasticity

The relationship between the percent change in price resulting in a corresponding percentage change in the quantity demanded or supplied

Price Elasticity of Demand

Percentage change in the quantity demanded of a good or service divided the percentage change in price

Price Elasticity of Supply

Percentage change in the quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in price

Tax Incidence

Manner in which the tax burden is divided between buyers and sellers

Unitary Elasticity

When the calculated elasticity is equal to one indicating that a change in the price of the good or service results in a proportional change in the quantity demanded or supplied

Wage Elasticity of Labor Supply

The percentage change in hours worked divided by the percentage change in wages

Zero Inelasticity

The highly inelastic case of demand or supply in which a percentage change in price, no matter how large, results in zero change in the quantity; vertical in appearance

Business Cycle

The economy’s relatively short-term movement in and out of recession

Depreciation

The process by which capital ages over time and therefore loses its value

Depression

An especially lengthy and deep decline in output

Double Counting

A potential mistake to avoid in measuring GDP, in which output is counted more than once as it travels through the stages of production

Durable Good

Long-lasting good like a car or a fridge

Exchange Rate

The price of one currency in terms of another currency

Final Good and Service

Output used directly for consumption, investment, government, and trade purposes; contrast with “intermediate good”

GDP per capita

GDP divided by the population

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The value of the output of all final goods and services produced within a country in a year