Anatomy, Physiology, and Fluid Balance Practice Flashcards

Practice flashcards covering the urinary system, blood vessel anatomy, cardiac circulation, respiratory and renal physiology, and fluid-electrolyte acid-base balance.

What metabolic waste products do the kidneys eliminate from the body, and what are their sources?

The kidneys eliminate urea and ammonia from broken down protein, uric acid from broken down nucleic acids, and ketones from broken down fat.

Which two hormones are released directly by the kidneys, and what are their primary functions?

Erythropoietin is released to create more erythrocytes (RBCs), and Renin is released to cause vasoconstriction and increase blood pressure.

Which two hormones act directly on the kidneys, and what are their specific actions?

Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) acts on the collecting duct to reabsorb water when blood volume is low, and Aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) to reabsorb salt when blood volume is low.

What hormones are produced by the cortex and medulla of the adrenal gland?

The adrenal cortex secretes Cortisol (sugar), Aldosterone (salt), and Testosterone (sex). The adrenal medulla secretes Epinephrine (acts like norepinephrine in fight or flight).

What are the primary functions of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra?

The kidneys filter blood and create urine; the two ureters transport urine from kidneys to bladder; the bladder stores urine; and the single urethra transports urine outside the body during micturition.

What is the pathway of urine drainage inside the kidney from the pyramids to the ureter?

Urine drains from the calyx at the funnel end of each renal pyramid into the renal pelvis, which then drains into the ureter.

How do the internal and external urethral sphincters differ in muscle control and neural innervation?

The internal urethral sphincter is made of smooth muscle controlled involuntarily by the autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic), whereas the external urethral sphincter is made of skeletal muscle controlled voluntarily by the somatic nervous system.

What are the main functions of the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT), and Collecting Duct?

The PCT reabsorbs $100\%$ of filtered glucose; the DCT reabsorbs most filtered $Na^+$ under the influence of Aldosterone; and the Collecting Duct reabsorbs most filtered water under the influence of Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).

What are the functions of the afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole, glomerular capillaries, and peritubular capillaries?

The afferent arteriole carries blood toward the nephron; the efferent arteriole carries blood away; glomerular capillaries are the site of filtration (excluding proteins and blood cells); and peritubular capillaries are the site of reabsorption ($100\%$ glucose, $Na^+$, and water).

What is the normal rate of glomerular filtration, and what items are abnormally present in urine if filtered?

Glomerular filtration occurs at a rate of $180\,\text{L/day}$. Abnormal items in urine include glucose, protein, and blood cells.

What are the three structural layers (tunics) of an arterial wall from inside to outside?

Tunica intima (endothelium and elastic tissue), Tunica media (smooth muscle), and Tunica adventitia (connective tissue).

How do capillaries facilitate exchange, and how do plasma proteins prevent edema?

Capillaries force water, oxygen, and nutrients out to body cells and absorb waste, carbon dioxide, and water back in via osmosis; plasma proteins maintain osmotic pressure to draw water back into blood vessels and prevent edema.

How do vasoconstriction and vasodilation affect blood pressure and vessel resistance?

Vasoconstriction increases resistance and blood pressure, whereas vasodilation decreases resistance and blood pressure.

Which branches of the common carotid artery supply the brain and the face?

The internal carotid artery supplies blood to the brain, and the external carotid artery supplies blood to the face.

What are the primary superficial veins of the upper extremity?

The cephalic vein (lateral), basilic vein (medial), and median cubital vein.

Which superficial vein in the lower extremity is commonly harvested for coronary artery bypass surgery?

The great saphenous vein.

What is an anastomosis, and what is a primary example in brain circulation?

An anastomosis is a connection where multiple arteries supply the same tissue; an example is the Circle of Willis, supplied by the internal carotid and vertebral arteries.

What three blood vessels are involved in hepatic circulation and what are their functions?

The hepatic artery delivers oxygenated blood from the aorta; the hepatic vein drains deoxygenated blood to the inferior vena cava (IVC); and the hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-rich blood from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver.

What two fetal shunts exist to bypass the lungs, and what condition occurs if the arterial shunt fails to close at birth?

The foramen ovale (shunts blood between right and left atria) and the ductus arteriosus (shunts blood from pulmonary trunk/artery to aorta). Failure of the ductus arteriosus to close results in Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA).

What is the mechanical relationship between lung volume and pressure during breathing?

Lung volume and pressure have an inverse relationship: as volume increases, pressure decreases, causing air to flow from high pressure outside to lower pressure inside the lungs.

Which muscles are used for normal inhalation versus forced exhalation?

The diaphragm (chief breathing muscle) and external intercostals are used to breathe in; internal intercostals are used for forced exhalation.

What is the normal blood pH range, and what are the three main acid sources in the body?

Normal blood pH is $7.35-7.45$. The main acids are $CO_2$ from aerobic metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, lactic acid from anaerobic metabolism of glucose, and ketoacids from metabolism of fatty acids.

What causes respiratory acidosis versus metabolic acidosis?

Respiratory acidosis is caused by hypercapnia/$CO_2$ buildup from hypoventilation. Metabolic acidosis is caused by non-$CO_2$ acid accumulation from conditions like diarrhea, lactic acid buildup, diabetic ketoacidosis, or kidney failure.

What causes respiratory alkalosis versus metabolic alkalosis?

Respiratory alkalosis is caused by hyperventilation leading to a decrease in $CO_2$. Metabolic alkalosis is caused by loss of acid or accumulation of base, such as from vomiting, antacids, or poisoning.

What is the complete pathway of blood flow through the heart starting from the vena cavae?

Superior/Inferior Vena Cava \rightarrow Right Atrium \rightarrow Tricuspid Valve \rightarrow Right Ventricle \rightarrow Pulmonary Semilunar Valve \rightarrow Pulmonary Trunk \rightarrow Pulmonary Arteries \rightarrow Lungs \rightarrow Pulmonary Veins \rightarrow Left Atrium \rightarrow Bicuspid Valve \rightarrow Left Ventricle \rightarrow Aortic Semilunar Valve \rightarrow Aorta \rightarrow Body.

Which heart valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk?

The pulmonary semilunar valve.

What fluid compartments constitute extracellular fluid (ECF)?

Extracellular fluids include plasma, lymph, interstitial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), aqueous/vitreous humor, synovial fluid, and serous fluid.

What are the primary intracellular cations and anions compared to extracellular cations and anions?

Intracellular fluid contains mainly $K^+$ and phosphate. Extracellular fluid contains mainly $Na^+$ and $HCO_3^-$ (bicarbonate).

What are the definitions of first, second, and third spacing of fluids?

First spacing is normal fluid distribution; second spacing refers to edema (swelling in interstitial space); third spacing is abnormal accumulation of fluid in odd spaces that are not easily removed.

How do buffers, lungs, and kidneys compensate for acidosis to raise blood pH?

To lower $H^+$ concentrations, chemical buffers absorb $H^+$, the lungs hyperventilate to blow off $CO_2$, and the kidneys filter and excrete $H^+$.