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Organization
Hierarchy of biological organization - Biosphere, Ecosystems, Communities, Populations, Species, Organisms, Organs, Tissues, Cells, Organelles, Molecules
Emergent Properties
Properties emerge at each level that weren’t there on the last one, due to arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases
Systems Biology
Analyze interactions among parts of system
Cell Theory
All living organisms made of cells, and actions are based on cell activity
Eukaryotic Cell
Membrane enclosed organelles and nucleus
Prokaryotic Cell
No nucleus or membrane enclosed organelles, smaller than eukaryotic
Chromosomes
Contain genetic material as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which has hundreds or thousands of genes
Gene Expression
The process which genetic information directs the production of a cellular product
Genome
“Library” of genetic instructions that were inherited
Genomics
Studying sets of genes in one or more species at once
Proteomics
Studying of sets of proteins at once
Proteome
Entire set proteins
Feedback Regulation
Output of product regulates it
Negative Feedback
Most common, Response reduced initial stimulus
Positive Feedback
Product speeds up own production
Atom
Smallest unit of matter that still has the properties of element
Atomic Nucleus
At center of the atom, a dense core of tightly packed neutrons and protons with a + charge because of the protons
Electron
Rapidly moving electrons form a “cloud” of - charge around the nucleus
Isotopes
Different atomic forms of elements
Covalent Bond
Two atoms sharing a pair of valence electrons, usually nonmetals
Ionic Bond
Cations & anions attract each other
Hydrogen Bond
Noncovalent attraction between hydrogen and electronegative atom
Chemical Reactions
Making and breaking of chemical bonds
Cohesion
Attraction and sticking together of water molecules
Adhesion
Clinging of one substance to another
Temperature
Average kinetic energy of molecules
Heat
Thermal energy transferred from one body of matter to another
Specific Heat
Amount of heat for 1g of the substance ± temperature by 1°C
Heat of Vaporization
Amount of heat to turn 1g liquid > gas
Solution
Solute (dissolved) + solvent (dissolved in)
Aqueous Solution
Water is the solvent in a solution
Hydrophilic
Affinity to water
Hydrophobic
Nonionic, nonpolar, repel water
Acidic
High concentration of H+ ions
Basic
High concentration of OH- ions
Acid
Higher hydrogen ion concentration
Base
Lower hydrogen ion concentration
Product of H+ and OH-
Always 10^-14 in an aqueous solution at 25°C
pH
-log[H+]
Strong acids and bases
Completely dissociate in water
pH of most living cells
Around 7
pH of human blood
7.4, can't survive if ± 0.4
Buffer
Substance that minimizes changes in pH
Ocean Acidification
When CO2 dissolves in seawater, lowering ocean pH and carbonate ion concentration
Carbon & Molecular Diversity
Chapter 4
Organic Chemistry
Study of compounds containing carbon
Major elements to life
C, H, O, N, S, P
Abiotic
Nonliving
Vitalism
Life force outside of natural laws
Mechanism
Natural laws create all phenomena
Carbon atoms
Can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms
Valence
Number of covalent bonds an atom can form
Hydrocarbons
Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
Isomers
Same number of atoms of the same elements but different structures
Structural Isomers
Different covalent arrangements of their atoms
Cis-Trans Isomers/Geometric Isomers
Differ in spatial arrangements around a double bond
Enantiomers
Mirror images of each other
Functional group
Chemical group directly involved in chemical reactions
Hydroxyl Group
-OH, polar and forms hydrogen bonds with water
Carbonyl Group
C=O, Ketone or aldehyde
Carboxyl Group
-COOH, acts as an acid
Amino Group
-NH2, acts as a base
Sulfhydryl Group
-SH, stabilizes protein structure
Phosphate Group
-OPO3^2-, contributes negative charge
Methyl Group
-CH3, affects gene expression
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Stores potential to react with water or other molecules
Macromolecules
Large carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
Polymers
Long chain-like molecules consisting of many similar building blocks linked by covalent bonds
Monomers
Building blocks of polymers
Enzyme
Specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions
Condensation Reaction
Connects monomers or polymers, with the loss of a small molecule
Dehydration Reaction
Water molecule is a byproduct, two molecules are covalently bonded by its loss
Hydrolysis
Reverse of dehydration synthesis, bond between monomers is broken by addition of a water molecule
Carbohydrates
Sugars and polymers of sugars
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars, monomers of more complex sugars
Disaccharide
Two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage
Glycosidic Linkage
Covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
Polysaccharide
Macromolecules formed by monosaccharides, used as storage and structural material
Starch
Polymer of glucose monomers, stored as plastids
Glycogen
Polymer of glucose, extensively branched
Cellulose
Polysaccharide, major component of cell walls
Chitin
Carbohydrate used by arthropods to build exoskeletons
Lipids
Diverse group of hydrophobic macromolecules
Fat
Glycerol joined to three fatty acids
Fatty Acid
Long carbon skeleton with a carboxyl group at the end
Ester Linkage
Bond between hydroxyl and carboxyl group
Saturated Fatty Acid
No double bonds, solid at room temperature
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
One or more double bonds, liquid at room temperature
Trans Fats
Unsaturated fats with trans double bonds
Phospholipid
Make up cell membranes, hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head
Steroids
Four fused rings, different steroids alter different chemical groups
Protein
Biologically functional molecule with one or more polypeptides folded into a 3D structure
Peptide Bond
Bond between amino acids
Polypeptide
Polymer of amino acids
Primary Structure
Unique sequence of amino acids in a protein
Secondary Structure:
Note 
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