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tunica intima
the innermost layer of blood vessels
composed of epithelial cells
systolic blood pressure
peak arterial pressure during ventricular systole
top number of a blood pressure reading
baroreceptors
sense changes in blood pressure
precapillary sphincter
segments of smooth muscle that help direct blood flow into capillaries
hypotension
low blood pressure
chemoreceptor
sense organ that responds to chemical stimuli
ANP & BNP
ANP: Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
released by cells in the right atrium in response to increased blood volume and stretching of atrial walls
main function is to promote vasodilation
BNP: Brain Natriuretic Peptide
released by cells in the ventricles in response to increased ventricular wall stress an pressure overload
promotes vasodilation
venule
a very small vein
collects blood from the capillaries
arteriole
a very small blood vessel
branches off of the arteries
carry blood away from the heart to tissues and organs
muscular artery (+example)
play a crucial role in regulating blood flow to specific tissues and organs
adjust their diameter in response to various stimuli
example: femoral artery
vasodilator (+example)
causes a blood vessel to widen
leads to increased blood flow
example: histamine
elastic artery (+example)
large arteries
bring blood away from the heart to various organs and tissues
elastic
example: the aorta
medium vein (+example)
size lies between small venules and large veins
collect blood from smaller veins and bring it back to the heart
example: brachial vein
large vein (+example)
carry blood directly back into the heart
large lumens
example: superior vena cava
explain how the nervous system senses and responds to adjusts to disturbances in blood pressure
the nervous system sense disturbances in blood pressure through baroreceptors and respond by adjusting heart rate, and hormone secretion to maintain blood pressure
explain how capillary hydrostatic pressure and blood colloid osmotic pressure contribute to gas exchange
capillary hydrostatic pressure and blood colloid osmotic pressure create a dynamic balance that regulate fluid movement and facilitate gas exchange across capillary walls
explain how the precapillary sphincter regulates blood flow through a local capillary bed
the sphincter can open and close the entrance of the capillary, by which contraction causes blood flow in a capillary to change as vasomotion occurs
explain how veins are able to return blood to the heart under low pressure
the one way valves allow veins to efficiently return blood back to the heart under low pressure conditions, ensuring proper circulation and oxygenation
explain how the kidneys can increase blood pressure
the kidneys sense that the body needs more blood and oxygen, so it produces hormones that increase blood pressure
explain the relationship between blood flow, pressure, and resistance
if blood pressure increases, blood flow increases; if resistance increases blood flow decreases
the 3 layers of a blood vessel wall
tunica externa
tunica media
tunica intima
factors that determine resistance
diameter of vessel
vessel length
turbulence of blood flow
blood pressure
veins vs. arteries vs. capillaries
veins:
carry blood back to the heart
thinner walls compared to arteries
smooth muscle
large lumens
example: superior and inferior vena cava
arteries:
carry blood away from the heart
thicker walls
thick tunica media
example: aorta
capillaries:
smallest vessels
most numerous
exchange gases, nutrients and waste products
thin, single layer walls
work through a network called capillary beds
continuous vs. sinusoidal capillaries
continuous:
most common
connected by tight junctions
no gaps between cells
sinusoidal:
large gaps between cells
lymphedema
swelling in arms or legs
caused by a lymphatic blockage
thoracic duct
drains most of the lymph from body
drains into the left subclavian vein
right lymphatic duct
drains into the right subclavian vein
tonsilitis
inflammation of the tonsils
peyer’s patches
a group of lymphoid follicles
line small intestine
prevent infections
dendritic cell
type of immune cell
found in tissues
boosts immune responses
showing antigens on its surface to other cells of the immune system
mucous membrane
moist, inner lining of organs and body cavities
interferons
chemical messengers
coordinate the defenses against viral infections
complement
system of plasma proteins
interact with pathogens to mark them for destruction of phagocytes
in early phases of infection
neutralization
stopping entry into host cells
opsonization
increased activity of phagocytes
interleukins
one group of related proteins
made by leukocytes and other cells in the body
autoimmune disorder
condition where the body’s immune system mistakes its own healthy tissues as foreign and attacks them
MALT (+example)
Mucosa - Associated Lymphoid Tissue
lymphoid tissues associated with mucosal membranes
respiratory, digestive, and respiratory tracts
peyer’s patches
appendix
tonsils
cytokine (+example)
small proteins
secreted by various cells of the immune system
play a key role in cell signaling, immune responses and inflammation
example: interleukins and interferons
explain where lymph comes from
lymph originates from interstitial fluid that is collected by lymphatic capillaries and transported through lymphatic vessels back to the bloodstream
explain how lymph nodes filter the lymph
lymph nodes filter lymph by trapping and removing pathogen, foreign particles and debris that is present in the lymphex
explain the function of the tonsils
tonsils fight infections and help kill germs
explain where lymphocytopoiesis occurs
lymphocytopoiesis occurs in bone marrow, the thymus and the peripheral lymphoid tissue
explain how mast cells mediate inflammation
mast cells release various inflammatory mediators upon activation.
4 functions of lymphatic system
immune defense
fluid balance and circulation
absorption of dietary lipids
transport immune cells and antigens
2 functions of the spleen
immune function
blood filtration and storage
3 signs of inflammation
redness (erythema)
swelling (edema)
heat (increased temperature)
innate vs. adaptive immunity
innate:
block or attack any foreign substance or pathogen
cannot distinguish one pathogen from another
born with
nonspecific
adaptive:
specific
respond to specific pathogens
protects against future attack from same pathogen
ability to develop immunological memory
built over time
B-cells and T-cells
B cells vs. T cells
B-cells:
make proteins (antibodies)
fight pathogens
T-cells:
protect you by destroying harmful pathogens
send signals that help control your immune system’s response to threats
naturally acquired active immunity vs. artificially acquired active immunity
naturally acquired active immunity:
when individual is exposed to pathogen
exposure can occur during infection
example: flu season
artificially acquired active immunity:
vaccinations
the immune system will then recognize the antigen present in the vaccine
naturally acquired passive immunity vs. artificially acquired passive immunity
naturally acquired passive immunity:
when antibodies transfer from mother to baby
these antibodies help protect the infant from infection
temporary
artificially acquired passive immunity:
when antibodies are transferred from one individual to another through medical intervention
short-term protection
example: donor and recipient
respiratory mucosa
mucous membrane lining the respiratory tract
epithelium: barrier, secretion, absorption
cilia
hairlike structure
move mucus up
nasal conchae
bony plates located on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity
increase surface area of these cavities
meatus
narrow passageways through conchae in the nasal cavity
produce air turbulence
slows down air movement
laryngitis
inflammation of the larynx
hilum
where pulmonary vessels, nerves and lymphatics enter lung
groove in lungs
pleura
a thin layer of tissue that covers the lungs and lines the interior wall of the chest cavity
protects and cushions the lungs
surfactant
oily fluid lubricates alveoli
inadequate surfactant leads to respiratory distress syndrome
hypoxia
low levels of oxygen to tissues
elastic rebound
muscles of inhalation relax
diaphragm and rib cage return to original positions
forceful breathing
required muscle contractions during inspiration and expiration
use of accessory muscles
intrapulmonary pressure
the force exerted by gases within the alveoli
carbonic acid
maintains the acid-base balance of the body
tidal volume
the amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs with each respiratory cycle
respiratory rate
the rate at which breathing occurs
number of breaths taken in one minute
inspiratory capacity
volume of air inhaled after a normal exhale
primary respiratory muscles involved in inhalation
muscles that are responsible for expanding the thoracic cavity to allow air to enter the lungs
example: diaphragm
sinus (+example)
air spaces within the bones surrounding the nose
example: frontal sinus
explain how food is prevented from entering the trachea
the epiglottis is a flap of cartilage that seals off the trachea when eating to prevent food from entering the trachea
explain how the autonomic nervous system regulated airflow through the respiratory system
the sympathetic nervous system promotes bronchodilation
the parasympathetic nervous system promotes bronchoconstriction
these opposing actions help maintain airflow and ensure efficient gas exchange in the lungs
explain how gases are exchanged at the blood air barrier
the blood air barrier provides an efficient interface for gas exchange between the respiratory system and the circulatory system
oxygen is delivered to tissues and carbon dioxide is removed from the body
explain how structures within the nasal cavity condition the inhaled air
the conchae swirl the air around to allow the air time to humidify, warm and be cleaned before it enters the lungs
explain Boyle’s law to describe the relationship between pressure and volume
as volumes increases, pressure decreases
as pressure increases, volume decreases
explain what major factor prevents the lungs from collapsing
the surfactant prevents the collapse of the lungs by reducing surface tension. this allows for the maintenance of proper lung function and ensures efficient gas exchange during breathing
explain how increasing oxygen concentrations affect Hb saturation
when oxygen concentration increases, it leads to an increase in the saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen
explain how rising temperature affects Hb saturation
The raise in temperature will decrease the hemoglobin saturation
explain how pressure changes in the thoracic cavity during the respiratory cycle
inhalation: the pressure inside the lungs decreases as air rushes in
exhalation: the increase of pressure within the thoracic cavity forces air out of the lungs
list sinuses
frontal sinuses
maxillary sinuses
ethmoid sinuses
sphenoid sinuses
4 respiratory defenses
mucociliary clearance
cough reflex
immunological defenses
reflexive bronchoconstriction
left versus right lung anatomy
right lung:
three lobes
shorter than left due to the liver
left lung:
two lobes due to the heart
longer than right
external versus internal respiration
internal respiration:
occurs in body tissues
cells release carbon dioxide and take in oxygen from the blood
external respiration:
occurs in the lungs
occurs when the body takes in oxygen from the atmosphere and releases carbon dioxide