AP Psychology Unit 0 - Core Aspects of Research

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that aimed to understand the structure of the mind by seperating it into its basic components or elements, such as sensations and perceptions. Through introspection, it is the process of looking inward to examine thoughts and feelings.

Came from Wilhelm Wundt

Functionalism

An early school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes adapt and function in helping organisms survive and thrive in their environments.

Behaviorism Approach

The approach to psychology to study observable behavior

Wilhelm Wundt

Known as the father of psychology. He emphasized the importance of introspection and structuralism in understanding the human mind.

Sigmund Freud

A neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories on the unconscious mind, sexual motivations, and the structure of personality.

Psychoanalytic Approach

The approach to psychology in which the unconscious desires are being studied to understand behavior and mental processes.

Biological Approach

The approach to studying psychology with the physiological functions of a human and how they influence behavior and mental processes.

Cognitive Approach

The approach to studying psychology with an emphasis on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving as key factors influencing behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology Approach

The approach to studying psychology with emphasis on the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior and mental traits.

Humanism

The approach to studying psychology with emphasis on human potential and personal growth, highlighting the importance of free will and self-actualization.

Social Approach (or Socio-Cultural)

The approach to studying psychology with emphasis on how social and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes.

APA Ethical Guidelines

Set of principles guiding ethical practice in psychological research

Includes…

• No Coercion

• Informed Consent

• Anonymity

• Debriefing

• Risk

APA Ethical Guideline: Risk

Participants must not be harmed physically or psychologically during the research process, ensuring their well-being is prioritized.

Participants may experience temporary discomfort or stress, but activities that cause harm in the long run are prohibited and must be avoided.

APA Ethical Guideline: Debriefing

After participation, researchers must provide participants with a full explanation of the study's purpose and any deceptions involved, addressing any concerns and offering support if needed.

Participants may be deceived for the sake of the study as long as they are debriefed later on

APA Ethical Guidelines: Informed Consent

Participants must know what they are getting into for the study. They must be informed about the nature of the research, potential risks, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty.

If the study involves deception, the deception must not be so far fetched to a point where it does not validate the informed consent

APA Ethical Guidelines: No Coercion

Participants must voluntarily agree to take part in research without any undue influence or pressure. They should feel free to make their own decisions regarding participation.

APA Ethical Guidelines: Anonymity

Participants’ identity should be kept completely confidential and not disclosed in any form that could link them to their responses.

Case Study

A research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single participant, group, or event, exploring complexities in their experiences or behaviors. Case studies are often used when it's not feasible to conduct experiments.

Pros:

• Provides rich qualitative data and deep insight into rare cases.

Cons:

• Limited generalizability and potential researcher bias.

• Researchers may over estimate the importance of their study

Naturalistic Observation

A research method involving the direct observation of subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Pros:

• Allows for the study of behavior in real-world settings, providing realistic validity.

Cons:

• Observations may be biased and cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

• the presence of the observer may influence behavior, and it can be time-consuming to gather data.

Longitudinal Study

A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over a long period, allowing for the study of changes and developments in participants.

Pros:

• Can track changes over time, providing detailed insights into developmental trends.

Cons:

• Time-consuming and may face participant attrition. Collects data from the same subjects repeatedly over years.

Survey

A research method that collects data from participants through questionnaires or interviews to assess thoughts, opinions, or behaviors, often used to gather insights from a larger population.

Pros:

• Can reach a large number of respondents quickly and cost-effectively.

• Easy way to view raw numbers in data

Cons:

• Participant may misrepresent their ideas/ feelings

• Wording may affect results

Meta Analysis

Research that involves combining data from multiple studies to identify patterns, trends, and overall effects across a range of research.

Cross Sectional Research

A research design that collects data from different groups at a single point in time, allowing for comparisons between groups.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome. It reflects a distortion of memory and perception regarding the outcome of events.

Overconfidence

The tendency to have excessive confidence in one's own answers, judgments, or abilities, often leading to inflated assessments of one's competence.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others, often leading to inaccurate self-reports.

Experimental Design

Explores cause and effect relationships through controlled experiments that manipulate independent variables to observe effects on dependent variables.

Correlational Study

A type of research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables, determining how they may change together without implying causation.

It helps identify patterns but cannot establish direct cause and effect.

Confounding Variables

Factors other than the independent variable that may cause. a result. Therefore, it is important to have a control group in an experimental study

Sample

The group of participants in a study

Stratified Sample

A sampling method where the population is divided into subgroups, or strata, and random samples are taken from each stratum to ensure representation.

Valid Results

Results that accurately reflect the data being studied, allowing researchers to make reliable conclusions.

Reliable Results

Results that can be replicated and produce similar results consistently

Experimenter Bias

The influence of the researcher's expectations or beliefs on the outcomes of an experiment, potentially leading to skewed results.

Double Blind Experiment

A research design in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment, helping to eliminate bias in results.

Single Blind

A research design in which only the participants do not know which group they are apart of

Placebo Method

A technique in research where participants receive a harmless substance or treatment that has no therapeutic effect, allowing researchers to measure the effect of the actual treatment against participants' expectations.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon in which participants experience a perceived improvement in their condition due to their expectations of treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Hawthorne Effect

When participants change the way they act in a study because they know they are being watched

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction, meaning that when one variable increases, the other also tends to increase.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables where one increases as the other decreases.

Scatter Plots

Graphs that depict the relationship between two quantitative variables, using dots to represent individual data points.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, typically ranging from -1 to +1.

Mean

The average of the statistics.

Can be found out by adding it all up, then dividing by the number of numbers

Median

The middle value in a dataset when the numbers are arranged in order. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two middle values.

Can be found out by reordering statistics in numerical order, then crossing it out to reach the middle numbers.

Mode

The number that appears the most in the statistical data

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest score in the data

Standard Deviation

A measure that indicates the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values. It shows how much individual data points differ from the mean of the dataset.

High Standard Deviation: Data points are more spread out from the mean

Low Standard Deviation: Data points are closer to the mean

Interential Statistics

A branch of statistics that allows researchers to make inferences and predictions about a population based on a sample of data.