AP Euro unit 4

1. The Scientific Revolution -

1. The Scientific Revolution -

1. The Scientific Revolution -

   • The transition from the medieval worldview to a largely secular, rational, and materialistic perspective that began with the publication of Copernicus’s heliocentric model of the universe

   • and ended with Isaac Newton’s “Principia,” which established the universal laws of motion and gravitation 

1. Developments in Astronomy

1. Developments in Astronomy -

   • Before the Scientific Revolution, people generally accepted the ancient Greek idea, held by thinkers like Aristotle and Ptolemy, that the earth was the center of the universe.

   • Copernicus challenged this with his heliocentric theory.

   • Then, German astronomer, Johannes Kepler, used mathematics to prove that planets have elliptical orbits, not circular ones.

   • Next, Galileo improved the telescope, dramatically amplifying its magnification, and used it to observe sunspots and the moons around Jupiter.

   • (Copernicus, Kepler, and Gallileo were all included on the Catholic Church’s Index of Prohibited Books, and Galileo was even accused of heresy.)

   • Finally, Isaac Newton established the universal law of gravitation and the three laws of motion. 

1. Developments in Anatomy

• Before the Scientific Revolution, people generally accepted the ancient Greek humoral theory of the body, held by Galen.

• The humoral theory proposed that the body was composed of 4 humors such as blood, bile and phlegm, and if a person was sick, those humors were out of balance, and could be cured through bloodletting.

• During the Scientific Revolution, Swiss physician, Paracelcus, claimed that chemical imbalances caused diseases and therefore, chemical remedies should be used instead of bloodletting.

• Andreas Vesalius made contributions to our understanding of human anatomy through the dissection of human corpses.

• Finally, William Harvey revolutionized our understanding of the circulatory system, explaining that blood was pumped out of the heart, through the body, and then returned to the heart, where the process began again. Again, this overturned Glaen’s theory that there were two different blood systems in the body. 

1. Developments in Reasoning -

• Francis Bacon emphasized empiricism, or the theory that knowledge is derived from sensory experience, such as seeing, hearing, touching, etc.

• Specifically, Bacon taught that knowledge should be gained through inductive reasoning, meaning understanding the world through small, specific observations and then drawing conclusions from those small observations to form beliefs about the larger world.

• Rene Descartes, on the other hand, developed the theory of deductive reasoning, which starts with general ideas and uses those ideas to draw conclusions about specific examples.

• While the theories are opposite in nature, both involve using the scientific method. 

heliocentric theory

The belief that the sun, not the Earth, is the center of the universe, published in On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543. 

1. The Enlightenment

1. an 18th century intellectual movement led by the philosophers that stressed the application of reason and scientific method to all aspects of life.

   • Following the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment applied rationalism and the scientific method to all areas of life,

   • striving to create progress in political and social spheres.    

1. Religious thought

• The Enlightenment popularized theories such as deism and atheism, which were often considered public attacks against religion.

• Therefore, at this time, religion became a more private matter with a new focus on developing personal piety and an individual relationship with God.

• For example, German pietism taught that religious experience was not about belonging to a church, but about mystical and personal experiences with divinity.

• Inspired by German pietism, Anglican preacher John Wesley developed the Methodist Movement, which emphasized personal religious experience and knowing God in your heart.

• Wesley preached in unorthodox locations like open fields and centered his teachings on deep, emotional feelings, further tying his religious beliefs not only to the Enlightenment, but also to Romanticism. 

1. Leisure Culture

• The Enlightenment is also associated with a new culture of leisure, in which people congregated at venues such as taverns, theaters, and opera houses.

• Meeting places of the Enlightenment included salons and coffeehouses, which were separated by social status. A salon was a gathering of philosophers and other members of the intelligentsia to discuss the ideas of the Enlightenment.

• The name ‘salon’ was derived from the elegant drawing rooms (salons) where they met.

• Coffeehouses, on the other hand, were gathering places for the middle and lower classes. They could buy coffee for a penny and discuss the issues and ideas of the day. 

1. Montesquieu

• A French philosopher and member of the nobility who criticized absolutism under King Louis XIV.

• He wrote The Spirit of the Laws,

• which argued for separation of powers, multiple branches of government, and a system of checks and balances. 

Voltaire

• One of the most influential of French philosophes

• Voltaire was known for his criticism of the social and religious institutions of France.

• After living under a constitutional monarchy in England, he still accepted absolutism, but argued for the importance of an enlightened monarch.

• In England, he also saw the benefits of religious toleration, and therefore, he strongly opposed France’s forced adherence to Catholicism.

• Voltaire is also known for a belief called deism, which supposes a God who created the world and then left it to transform and evolve without any divine interference.

1. Mary Wollstonecraft -

• In the late 18th century, during the French Revolution, Mary Wollstonecraft challenged Rousseau’s position on women being subservient to men, in her book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

• She argued for equal rights and education for men and women. 

1. David Hume -

• Known for developing the theory of skepticism,

• Hume postulated that all knowledge is gained through sensation and experience. Knowledge can only be acquired through sight, touch, sound, etc.

• Therefore, ideas about God and the creation, which cannot be experienced through the senses, cannot be considered knowledge. 

1. John Locke

• An English philosopher famous for his belief in natural rights endowed by the Creator, not the monarch.

• In his Second Treatise on Civil Government, Locke proposed the idea that all people are born with inalienable rights such as life, liberty, and property. 

1. Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• An Enlightenment philosopher who wrote The Social Contract, which argues that there is an implicit contract between the government and the governed.

• The people allow themselves to be governed, but if the government becomes tyrannical the people have the right to overthrow said government and establish a new one.

• Essentially, people can only be governed by their own consent. Rousseau is also known for his increased emphasis on the importance of childhood as a distinct phase of development, a time of education and fostering curiosity. 

1. Denis Diderot

• Most known for creating The Encyclopédie,

• which was a collection of over 72,000 articles on every aspect of life according to Enlightenment principles.

• While Diderot compiled The Encyclopédie, he was not its sole author. He worked with many other Enlightenment thinkers to produce the massive volume.

• In addition, Diderot is also known for popularizing atheism, which is the belief that God does not exist.

laissez-faire

• ‘‘leave alone” or “let them do as they please”

• An economic doctrine that holds that an economy is best served when the government does not interfere

• allows the economy to self-regulate according to the forces of supply and demand.  

1. Physiocrats

• Similar to Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations, physiocrats were French economists like Anne Robert Jacques Turgot who argued for laissez-faire capitalism in France.

• He argued that the government should have a minimal role in economics,

• and that the people would choose what was produced through the laws of supply and demand. 

1. Neoclassicism -

• After the grandeur of Baroque art, Neoclassicism turned to simplicity and symmetry in art.

• In architecture, Neoclassicism hearkened back to the lines of ancient Greece, triangular roofs and simple lines in the forms of columns.

• In art, neoclassicism still included Biblical scenes, but also included a focus on everyday life.

• This is depicted by Rembrandt who painted both Storm on the Sea of Galilee and also Slaughtered Ox. 

consumerism

• With the rise of industrialization, new consumer goods for homes included: porcelain dishes, cotton and linens for home decor, mirrors, and prints (a social and economic order that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts)

• 18th-century

1. enlightened absolutism

• An absolute monarchy in which the ruler followed the principles of the Enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society,

• allowing freedom of speech and the press

• , permitting religious toleration,

• expanding education,

• and ruling in accordance with the laws

• his included monarchs such as Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II of Prussia, and Joseph II of Austria.

• Although these monarchs had absolute power, they softened their governance by following SOME enlightenment ideals. 

1. Catherine the Great of Russia

• She continued Peter the Great’s westernization of Russia, participated in the diplomatic acquisition of territory through the Partition of Poland,

• allowed religious toleration and made strides toward freedom of the serfs,

• both of which were ultimately overshadowed by forcing Jews to live in the Pale of Settlement and increased oppression of serfs after the Pugachev rebellion. 

1. Joseph II of Austria

• Another enlightened absolutist,

• he signed the Edict of Toleration, granting religious freedom for Jews

• and increased freedom of the press. 

1. Frederick II of Prussia

• Known for his enlightened comment, “I am the servant of the state,”

• Frederick II increased religious toleration in Prussia

• and abolished torture as a legal form of punishment.