Exam 1 Review for Anatomy and Physiology 2 (endocrine, blood, heart, and blood vessels)

exocrine vs endocrine glands

exocrine (exo = outside)

- ducts but no hormones

ex. sweat glands

endocrine (endo = within)

- no ducts but bloodstream

- hormones

ex. pituitary

hormones

chemical messengers (mediators) that are secreted from endocrine glands

- travel within the bloodstream to reach their target cells and connect to their receptors (protein) in a way as a lock and key

two types of hormones

water soluble hormones and lipid soluble hormones

- fat insoluble and fat soluble

water soluble hormones

(fat insoluble)

- receptors located on cell membrane so membranous receptors

- polypeptides = hydrophilic (water loving)

- majority

- amine, peptide and protein, and eicosanoid hormones

- need cAMP as a second messenger for target cell

lipid soluble hormones

(fat soluble)

- remember i is important to remember types of hormones

- receptors located inside target cell within nucleus so intracellular receptors

- hormones pass through the plasma membrane and enter the nucleus to cause a gene alteration (gene activation, inhibition, or stimulation)

- this hormone works slower compared to polypeptide/protein hormones

- steroid, thyroid, and NO hormones

steroid hormones

1. aldosterone (sodium and potassium homeostasis so sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion)

- mineralocorticoid (mineral homeostasis)

2. cortisol

- glucocorticoid (glucose homeostasis)

3. testosterone

- androgens (masculinizing effects)

4. estrogen

5. progesterone

pituitary gland

- hypophysis

- master/king gland

- three parts: anterior, middle, and posterior

anterior pituitary

adenohypophysis

- secretes 7 hormones

1. GH - growth hormone

2. ACTH - adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)

3. TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone

4. LH - luteinizing hormone (gonadotropin)

5. FSH - follicle stimulating hormone (gonadotropin)

6. PRL - prolactin (lactogen)

7. MSH - melanocyte stimulating hormone

posterior pituitary

- neurohypophysis

- stores and releases 2 hormones

1. ADH - antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)

2. OT - oxytocin

- hypothalamic hypophyseal tract connects the neurons of the posterior pituitary and hypothalamus so the pituitary is under the control of the hypothalamus

- through this tract, the hypothalamus synthesizes ADH and OT and sends it to the posterior pituitary for storage and once needed the pituitary releases the hormones

adrenal cortex layers

1. zona glomerulosa - mineralocorticoids

2. zona fasciculata - glucocorticoids

3. zona reticularis - androgens

TSH

thyroid stimulating hormone

- literally in the name so it stimulates the thyroid gland

PRL

prolactin

- lactogen goes to the mammary glands in the breasts for milk production

OT 1

oxytocin

- ejects milk during lactation and a newborn from the uterus during labor

FSH

follicle-stimulating hormone

- in males, it causes sperm production, spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of testes

- in females, it causes follicle development

LH

luteinizing hormone

- in males, causes testosterone production (from interstitial = Leydig cells of testes)

- in females, causes corpus luteum to produce progesterone and some estrogen

ADH

antidiuretic hormone

- in response to thirstiness, bleeding, vomiting, sweating, diarrhea, shock, fluid loss, and blood loss, ADH production results to increase fluids in body to compensate to fluid loss in all of these conditions

- so basically, if fluids are lost/low then ADH increases fluids in body

- ADH increases when there's high osmolarity = high blood concentration conditions

- helps the body retain water

OT

oxytocin

- presses the breasts for milk release and uterus for childbirth

- sucking on the breast causes OT to release more

- ALSO, the more the head of the baby comes down during labor then the more the OT is released from the posterior pituitary due to pressure and stretching of the cervix of uterus

pancreas is a mixed gland

true

- both endocrine and exocrine

pancreas is composed of

islets of Langerhans

- alpha cells: glucagon results in glucose increase by glycogenolysis

- beta cells: insulin results in glucose decrease by glycogenesis

diabetes mellitus

insulin is not secreted adequately or tissues are resistant to its effects

- so low insulin

diabetes insipidus

antidiuretic hormone is not secreted adequately, or the kidney is resistant to its effect

- so ADH is low and the patient urinates a lot

pancreas

- exocrine

secretes HCO3 and digestive enzymes

kidneys

- ANP

atrial natriuretic peptide

- causes sodium secretion by reducing sodium reabsorption SO it decreases blood pressure

parathyroid gland

- calcium homeostasis

- chief cells (principal cells) produce PTH

- PTH increases calcium in blood with the assistance of vitamin D, calcitriol; while calcitonin from the thyroid gland causes low calcium blood level

at times, the removal of the thyroid gland is needed but sometimes the parathyroid are removed as well and this leads to

hypocalcemia, low blood calcium because of the lack of PTH

thyroid gland

produces T3 and T4

Goiter

enlargement of the thyroid gland

- occurs when intake of iodine is low

Thyroid regulates

metabolism, including body temperature that affects mitochondria in our cells and increase cellular respiration and ATP in the body

pineal gland

produces melatonin for sleep and circadian rhythm regulation

thymus secretion

immune system

estrogen and progesterone

produced by ovaries

testosterone/androgen

is from the testes and it causes secondary sexual characteristics

steroid hormones include

aldosterone, cortisol, calcitriol, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone

Cushing's syndrome

hypersecretion of cortisol

Addison's disease

hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone

Homeostasis

equilibrium

Hemostasis

blood coagulation/clotting (platelets are responsible)

Physical properties of blood

Males: 5-6 L

Females: 4-5 L

Temp.: ~38 degrees C

pH: 7.35 - 7.45

more viscous and denser than water

Contains: RBC, WBC, Platelets, and Plasma

Bile

a digestive juice secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder

Blood content

55% plasma which is 92% water , 45% formed elements (RBC, platelets, WBC)

Albumin

is more than other plasma proteins so

in order its

1. albumin

2. globulin

3. fibrinogen

most numerous to least numerous

- RBC (most abundant)

- platelets

- WBC (least abundant)

Erythropoietin (EPO)

hormone secreted by the kidneys in response to hypoxia (low O2)

- ex. high altitudes

so it causes RBC to be produced

hematopoiesis

production of blood cells

- located in the red bone marrow

- 3 types

1. erythropoiesis is RBCs production bc of erythropoietin

2. leucopoiesis is WBCs production

3. thrombopoiesis is platelet production

poiesis

formation, production

anemia

a deficiency of red blood cells

polycythemia

an increase in the number of RBCs and causes blood viscosity to increase

- causes blood peripheral resistance to increase and causes blood pressure to increase

- can be causes by smoking bc the high production of RBC due to hypoxia = deficiency of oxygen

- can lead to heart attack or brain stroke

Lifespan of RBC

120 days (4 months)

RBCs contain

Hemoglobin and they are biconcave in shape that carry oxygen

Thrombocytes

platelets

Thrombocytes and erythrocytes

Which blood cells have no nucleus?

What makes up the buffy coat

leukocytes (WBCs) and platelets (thrombocytes)

2 types of lymphocytes

T cells and B cells

T cells

mature in the thymus and work for cell mediated or cellular immunity

- two types:

1. T helper (T4, CD4)

2. T cytotoxic (T8, CD8)

B cells

mature in red bone marrow

- mature into plasma cells that release antibodies for humoral or AB mediated immunity

- work for special and adaptive immunity

Parent cells of platelets are called

megakaryocytes

megakaryocyte

in the red bone marrow

- have a nucleus

- large but then divide into 2000-3000 parts to create platelets

parent of RBC

reticulocyte and it contains a nucleus

2 types of WBC

granulocytes (PMN = poly-morphonuclear) and agranulocytes (mononuclear)

Granulocytes

- neutrophils (most)

- eosinophils

- basophils (least)

Agranulocytes

- lymphocytes (B and T cells)

- monocytes

Eosinophils

allergic reactions and parasites

- IgE

Basophils

produce histamine that causes vasodilation and heparin for anticoagulant/blood thinner

- allergies

Neutrophils

phagocytes and ingests bacteria

Iron is an important component of

hemoglobin

Most common anemia is

iron deficiency anemia

- more in females than males

WBCs from most to least abundant

1. Neutrophils

2. Lymphocytes

3. Monocytes

4. Eosinophils

5. Basophils

"Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas"

Plasma protein from most to least abundant

1. albumins

2. globulins

3. fibrinogen

TPO (thrombopoietin)

from the liver and causes platelet production (thrombopoiesis from the red bone marrow in response to bleeding)

peripheral vascular resistance

the resistance of the vessels to the flow of blood: increased when the vessels constrict, decreased when the vessels relax

-can be increased by obesity and vasoconstriction

leukopenia

Low WBC count

- below 5,000

leukocytosis

abnormally high WBC count

- more than 10,000

- seen in infection

Bacterial infection

neutrophils increase

Viral infection

lymphocytes increase

which ion is important in hemostasis/blood clotting

calcium

- also important in muscle contraction, bone structure, and nerves functions

hemostasis is a positive feedback and stopped by

fibrinolytic system with the protein plasmin

thrombocytosis

abnormally high platelet count

thrombosis

abnormal condition of a blood clot

embolus

moving blood clot

- blood clot (thrombus) is transported by the bloodstream

plasma is bigger than

serum

serum

plasma without clotting factors and without fibrin proteins

blood type AB

A and B antigens, no antibodies

- universal receiver.

blood type O

no antigens, anti-A and anti-B antibodies

- universal donor

blood type A

A antigen and anti-B antibody

blood type B

B antigen and anti-A antibody

Heart

located in the middle section of mediastinum, btwn the two lungs

apex of the heart

tip of the heart pointing down

- towards the left

base of the heart

top of the heart

- composed of left atrium and right atrium

4 chambers of the heart

1.right atrium

2. right ventricle

3. left atrium

4. left ventricle: has the thickest wall so it is strong enough to push the blood into the aorta

Valve between right atrium and right ventricle

tricuspid valve

- right AV valve (atrioventricular valve)

Valve between left atrium and left ventricle

bicuspid valve

- mitral valve

- left AV (atrioventricular valve)

Valve in the outlet of the right ventricle (btwn right ventricle and pulmonary trunk/artery)

pulmonary or pulmonic semilunar valve

Valve in the outlet of the left ventricle (btwn left ventricle an aorta)

aortic valve

- aortic semilunar valve

blood vessels that are input (afferent = toward) into right atrium of the heart are

1. superior vena cava (head, chest, neck, and shoulder)

2. inferior vena cava

3. coronary sinus

- three veins are from systemic or general or large circulation

input (veins) into left atrium

- four pulmonary veins: two from left lung and two from right lung

- from pulmonary or small circulation

output of right ventricle

- pulmonary trunk that divides into two pulmonary arteries (left n right)

output of left ventricle

aorta

systemic circulation pathway

left ventricle to aorta to large size arteries to mid size to small size to arterioles to metarterioles to precapillary sphincters to capillaries to tissue to venules to small veins to midsize veins to large veins to inferior vena cava and superior vena cava to right atrium

pulmonary circulation pathway

right ventricle to pulmonary trunk to right pulmonary artery and left pulmonary artery to lungs to pulmonary veins to left atrium

inferior vena cava

carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the heart