COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive Neuroscience

the scientific study of how the brain and nervous system produce cognitive processes and behavior. It explains how mental functions arise from the physical and chemical activities of neurons.

Perception

Recognizing, organizing, and interpreting sensory information

Attention

Selecting and processing relevant information from the environment and memory.

Memory

Retaining and retrieving information from past experiences.

Language

Using words and symbols to communicate.

Decision Making

Selecting among choices or evaluating opportunities.

Problem solving

Mentally overcoming obstacles to reach a

solution.

Awareness

Awareness of oneself and one's surroundings.

Mental Representations

are patterns of neural activity, not single stored units.

Excitatory neurons

increase the likelihood that neurons will fire.

Inhibitory neurons

decrease the likelihood that

neurons will fire.

Nervous System

the body's communication network

that enables interaction with the environment by:

1. Receiving information

2. Processing information

3. Producing responses

Forebrain

the largest and most evolved brain region, responsible for higher cognitive functions.

Cerebral Cortex

Thinking, reasoning, language, perception, planning, voluntary movement. the 1–3 mm outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres, folded into gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves) to increase surface area.

Basal Ganglia

Movement, motor control, habit learning

Limbic System

Emotion, motivation, learning, memory

Thalamus

The brain's relay station that sends sensory and motor information to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

The brain's homeostasis center that regulates body functions and controls the autonomic and endocrine systems. Survival behaviors

• Regulates body temperature

• Controls hunger and thirst

• Regulates sleep and circadian rhythms

• Controls hormones through the pituitary gland

• Regulates the autonomic nervous system

Parkinson’s Disease

Tremors, rigidity, slow movement, difficulty initiating movement.

Huntington’s Disease

Genetic degeneration of the basal ganglia

Involuntary jerky movements, loss of motor control, cognitive decline

Amygdala

Processes fear, anger, and emotions

Hippocampus

Forms, organizes, and consolidates declarative (explicit) memories and supports spatial navigation.

Septum

Helps regulate emotions and behavior, and contributes to feelings of pleasure, reward, and motivation.

Midbrain

located between the forebrain and hindbrain and serves as a communication and control center.

Functions:

 Eye movement

 Motor coordination

 Processing visual reflexes

 Processing auditory reflexes

Superior Colliculi

are paired structures on the upper part of the midbrain that process visual information and coordinate reflexive eye and head movements.

Functions

• Processes vision

• Controls visual reflexes

• Coordinates eye movements

• Helps turn the eyes and head toward visual stimuli

Inferior Colliculi

are paired structures on the lower part of the midbrain responsible for processing auditory information and triggering hearing-related reflexes.

Reticular Activating System

also called the reticular formation, is a network of neurons that extends throughout the brainstem. It is essential for maintaining consciousness, alertness, and attention.

Functions

• Regulates sleep

• Regulates wakefulness

• Controls arousal (level of alertness)

• Maintains attention

• Helps control heartbeat

• Helps control breathing

Gray matter

contains neuron cell bodies and is involved in processing and integrating information.

Red nucleus

is a motor center involved in movement coordination, especially of the arms.

Functions

• Coordinates voluntary movement

• Helps maintain posture

• Assists motor control

Substantia nigra

("black substance") contains dopamine-producing neurons and is an important part of the basal ganglia motor system.

Ventral Region

the midbrain contains pathways that carry motor signals from the brain to the spinal cord.

Functions

• Movement control

• Motor coordination

• Relays motor information

Hindbrain

rhombencephalon) is the oldest and most primitive part of the brain. It is responsible for automatic life-sustaining functions, movement coordination, balance, and communication between the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebellum

“Little brain”

• Functions

• Controls bodily coordination

• Controls balance

• Controls muscle tone

• Involved in memories related to procedural movements

Pons

the middle part of the brainstem. Its name means "bridge" because it connects different parts of the brain and relays information between them. Important in REM sleep.

Functions:

• Sleep

• Consciousness

• Facial nerve activity

• Communication between brain regions

Medulla Oblongata

is the lowest part of the brainstem, located where the brain joins the spinal cord. It controls vital involuntary functions essential for life. Damage is often life-threatening.

Functions

• Serves as the crossing point for nerves from opposite sides of the body

• Controls breathing

• Controls swallowing

• Controls digestion

• Controls heart activity

Frontal Lobe

Functions:

• Voluntary movement

• Planning

• Judgment

• Decision-making

• Abstract reasoning

• Personality

• Problem-solving

Frontal Lobe

Main Function: Executive functions and voluntary movement.

• Voluntary movement

• Planning

• Judgment

• Decision-making

• Problem-solving

• Personality

• Broca's area (speech production)

Keyword: Think • Move • Speak

Parietal Lobe

Main Function: Somatosensory processing.

• Touch

• Pain

• Temperature

• Body position (proprioception)

• Spatial awareness

Keyword: Feel • Locate

Temporal Lobe

located on the sides of the brain, is responsible for auditory processing (hearing), language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

Occipital Lobe

located at the back of the brain, is the brain's visual processing center, responsible for vision, color recognition, motion detection, shape recognition, and visual perception. It contains the primary visual cortex.

Neuron

the basic functional unit of the nervous system responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals.

Soma (Cell body)

the main part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and maintains the cell's life.

Main Function: Integrates incoming information and keeps the neuron alive.

Dendrites

branch-like extensions that receive signals from other neurons and carry them toward the soma.

Main Function: Receive incoming information.

Axon

long fiber that carries electrical impulses away from the soma to other neurons or muscles.

Main Function: Transmits electrical impulses (action potentials).

Myelin Sheath

a fatty insulating layer that surrounds many axons.

Main Function: Protects the axon and speeds nerve impulse transmission.

Nodes of Ranvier

small gaps between segments of the myelin sheath.

Main Function: Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission.

Terminal Buttons (Axon Terminals)

are located at the end of the axon.

Main Function: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with the next cell.

Synapse

the tiny gap between two neurons where communication occurs.

Main Function: Allows neurons to communicate through neurotransmitters.

• Reduced synaptic efficiency is associated with disorders

  such as Alzheimer's disease.

Monoamine Neurotransmitters

are chemical messengers synthesized from amino acids that regulate many brain and body functions.

Main Functions: Movement, mood, memory, and attention.

Examples:

• Acetylcholine

• Dopamine

• Serotonin

Amino Acid Neurotransmitters

are neurotransmitters made directly from amino acids and are the most common in the brain.

Main Function: Regulate neural activity by exciting or inhibiting neurons.

Example:

• GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) – the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces excessive neural activity.

Neuropeptides

are short chains of amino acids that act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators.

Main Functions: Pain regulation, stress response, and hormonal communication.

Brain Imaging Techniques

are non-invasive methods used to study the brain's structure, function, and activity.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Definition: Records the brain's electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp.

Main Function: Measures brain waves.

Uses: Sleep studies, epilepsy, consciousness.

Event-Related Potentials (ERP)

Definition: Measures the brain's electrical response to a specific stimulus.

Main Function: Studies how the brain processes stimuli.

Uses: Attention, language, memory, perception.

Computed Tomography (CT/CAT Scan)

Definition: Uses X-rays to produce cross-sectional images of the brain.

Main Function: Detects structural abnormalities.

Uses: Tumors, stroke, brain injuries, bleeding.

Angiography

Definition: Uses a contrast dye and X-rays to visualize blood vessels in the brain.

Main Function: Examines cerebral blood vessels and blood flow.

Uses: Blocked arteries, aneurysms.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Definition: Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of brain structures.

Main Function: Shows brain anatomy.

Uses: Brain structure, size, shape, tumors.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Definition: Measures changes in blood oxygen levels to identify active brain areas during tasks.

Main Function: Shows brain activity.

Uses: Memory, language, attention, emotion, decision-making.

Positron Emission Tomography

Definition: Uses a radioactive tracer to measure the brain's metabolic activity.

Main Function: Shows brain metabolism and function.

Uses: Alzheimer's disease, dementia, cognitive research.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Definition: Uses magnetic pulses to stimulate or temporarily disrupt activity in specific brain regions.

Main Function: Stimulates specific brain areas.

Uses: Depression treatment, brain mapping, cognitive research.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Definition: Detects the magnetic fields produced by brain activity.

Main Function: Measures brain activity with high temporal accuracy.

Uses: Language, sensory processing, cognitive neuroscience.

Brain Damage

the destruction or deterioration of brain cells, resulting in impaired brain function.

Main Effects: May affect cognition, movement, sensation, memory, language, emotion, and behavior.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

is brain damage caused by an external force.

Main Causes: Blow to the head, falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports injuries.

Key Point: External trauma damages the brain.

Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)

is brain damage that occurs after birth and is not caused by external trauma.

Main Causes: Brain tumors, stroke, neurological illnesses, increased pressure inside the brain.

Key Point: Internal causes damage the brain.

Brain Tumors

(neoplasm) is an abnormal growth of cells in the brain that grows independently of normal tissue.

Main Effect: Can impair brain function by putting pressure on or invading brain tissue.

Meningioma

is a tumor that develops from the meninges, the protective coverings of the brain.

Main Characteristics:

• Usually benign

• Encapsulated

• Surgically removable

• Low risk of recurrence

Infiltrating Tumor

grows into the surrounding brain tissue.

Main Characteristics:

• Usually malignant

• Difficult to remove completely

• Often continues growing after surgery

Metastatic Tumor

is a cancer that starts in another part of the body and spreads to the brain.

Main Characteristics:

• Secondary brain tumor

• Spreads through the bloodstream

• Commonly originates from lung cancer

Neuroma

is a tumor that develops on a nerve or nerve tract.

Main Symptoms:

• Pain

• Tingling or numbness

• Feeling like there is a stone inside the shoe (common in foot neuromas)

Primary Brain Tumor

Definition: A tumor that originates in the brain.

Main Characteristic: May be benign or malignant.

Cerebrovascular Disorders

are conditions that affect blood flow to the brain, often resulting in a stroke.

Cerebral Hemorrhage

is bleeding in the brain caused by the rupture of a blood vessel.

Aneurysm

is a balloon-like bulge or weakening in the wall of a blood vessel that may rupture and cause severe brain bleeding.

Cerebral Ischemia

is a reduced blood supply to part of the brain, depriving brain cells of oxygen and nutrients.

Thrombosis

is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, blocking blood flow.

Embolism

is the blockage of a blood vessel by a clot or other material that has traveled through the bloodstream.

Arteriosclerosis

is the hardening and narrowing of arteries due to plaque buildup, reducing blood flow.

Closed-Head Injuries

is a brain injury in which the skull remains intact, but the brain is damaged.

Main Effects: Confusion, loss of consciousness, and sensorimotor problems.

Contusion

is a bruise on the brain caused by bleeding within brain tissue.

Contrecoup Injury

brain damage that occurs on the side opposite the point of impact because the brain hits the inside of the skull.

Concussion

is a temporary disruption of brain function caused by a blow to the head.

Common Symptoms: Headache, memory problems, poor concentration, balance and coordination difficulties.

Punch-Drunk Syndrome

is brain damage caused by repeated concussions, leading to dementia and cerebral scarring.

Brain Infection

occurs when bacteria or viruses invade the brain or nervous tissue, causing inflammation.

Encephalitis

is inflammation of the brain caused by an infection, usually viral.

Cerebral Abscess

is a collection of pus inside the brain caused by a bacterial infection.

Meningitis

is inflammation of the meninges, the protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

General Paresis

is dementia caused by untreated syphilis affecting the brain.

Neurotropic Viruses

are viruses that specifically infect nervous tissue.

Example: Rabies

Pantropic Viruses

are viruses that can infect many body tissues, including the brain.

Examples: Mumps, Herpes

Neurotoxins

are toxic chemicals that damage the nervous system.

Toxic Psychosis

is a long-term psychiatric disorder caused by exposure to toxic chemicals.

Tardive Dyskinesia

a movement disorder caused by long-term use of certain antipsychotic medications.

Genetic Factors

are inherited chromosomal or genetic abnormalities that can cause brain dysfunction.

Neuropsychological Diseases

are disorders that affect the brain and nervous system, leading to problems with movement, thinking, memory, or behavior.

Epilepsy

a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Epileptic Aura

is a warning sign or unusual sensation that occurs before a seizure.

Simple Partial Seizure

affects one area of the brain without loss of consciousness.

Grand Mal (Tonic-Clonic) Seizure

involving loss of consciousness and full-body muscle contractions.

Petit Mal (Absence) Seizure

causing brief lapses in consciousness, often with a vacant stare.

Parkinson's Disease

is a movement disorder caused by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra.