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Layers of the Earth – Inner Core

Innermost layer, extremely hot, solid sphere made of iron and nickel.

Layers of the Earth – Outer Core

Liquid layer, a sea of mostly iron and nickel.

Layers of the Earth – Mantle

Composed of two regions, upper and lower, made of hot, semi-solid rock.

Layers of the Earth – Crust

Outermost and thinnest layer of Earth, located under oceans and continents.

Plate Tectonics

Theory developed by Alfred Wegener in the early 1900s, proposing that Earth's outer layer is broken into plates that move.

Evidence for Plate Tectonics

Plant and animal fossils found on different coasts, matching geological formations, and coastlines of Africa and South America fitting together.

Pangaea

A supercontinent that began breaking apart and drifting around 175 million years ago.

Modern Theory of Plate Tectonics

Explains Earth's lithosphere is broken into 15 plates that are constantly moving, supporting continental drift.

Tectonic Plates

Earth's surface consists of 15 major plates.

Types of Crust

Continental crust is under landmasses, and oceanic crust is under oceans.

Convergent Boundary

Plates move toward each other, creating earthquakes, mountain ranges, island arcs, and volcanoes (e.g., Himalayas).

Divergent Boundary

Plates move away from each other, causing rifts, seafloor spreading, and mid-ocean ridges (e.g., Pacific and Antarctic Plates).

Transform Boundary

Plates slide past one another, leading to earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault in California).

Earthquakes and Plate Boundaries

Common at plate boundaries due to tectonic plate movements.

Divergent Boundary Future Prediction

Lakes and valleys will deepen and widen.

Transform Boundary Future Prediction

Earthquakes will continue.

Convergent Boundary Future Prediction

Increased volcanic activity.

Focus (Hypocenter)

Point where an earthquake originates underground.

Epicenter

Point directly above the focus on Earth's surface.

Volcanoes and the Environment

Necessary for forming new land and releasing essential gases into the atmosphere.

Volcanoes’ Effects on Ecosystems

Can destroy habitats and contaminate water.

Subduction Zone

Occurs when the denser oceanic plate is forced beneath a lighter plate, leading to volcanic activity.

Subduction and Volcanic Activity

Causes temperature and pressure to rise, triggering magma formation.

Primary Succession

Life starts in uninhabited areas, such as volcanic landscapes.

Primary Succession and Soil Formation

Pioneer species like lichen and moss grow on bare rock, breaking it down to form soil.

Tsunami Generation

Caused by earthquakes along subduction zones where one plate is forced under another.

Negative Ecological Impact of Tsunamis

Destruction of coastal ecosystems.

Transform Boundary and Earthquakes

Plates build up stress while sliding past each other.

Geological Time Period – Proterozoic

From 2.5 billion to 541 million years ago.

Geological Time Period – Paleozoic

From 541 to 252 million years ago, known for marine life and early land animals.

Geological Time Period – Mesozoic

From 252 to 66 million years ago, age of dinosaurs.

Geological Time Period – Cenozoic

From 66 million years ago to the present, age of mammals.

Ring of Fire

A zone of active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes around the edges of the Pacific Ocean.

Igneous Rock Formation

Created from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

Sedimentary Rock Formation

Created from the accumulation and compression of sediment.

Metamorphic Rock Formation

Created when existing rocks are subjected to heat and pressure.

Rock Cycle

Describes how igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are formed and transformed through processes like melting, cooling, erosion, and heat/pressure.

Pangaea Puzzle

Developed by Alfred Wegener and formed during the Carboniferous Period, evidenced by fossil patterns, geological formations, and magnetic rock signatures.

Physical Weathering

Breakdown of rocks by abiotic (wind, water) and biotic (roots, organisms) causes, increasing surface area and leading to erosion.

Chemical Weathering

Changes the chemical composition of rocks through processes like carbonation, hydrolysis, and oxidation.

Anthropogenic Chemical Weathering

Caused by acid rain, leading to soil development and nutrient release.

Soil Layers – O-Horizon

Organic layer made of decomposed matter like leaves.

Soil Layers – A-Horizon

Topsoil rich in organic material and nutrients.

Soil Layers – E-Horizon

Leached layer, light in color, mostly sand and silt.

Soil Layers – B-Horizon

Subsoil rich in minerals from leached layers above.

Soil Layers – C-Horizon

Weathered parent material with large rock fragments.

Soil Layers – R-Horizon

Unweathered bedrock layer.

Forest Biome

High biodiversity, dense trees, and a warm or cold climate depending on type.

Grassland Biome

Open fields with grasses and few trees, moderate rainfall.

Rainforest Biome

Dense forests with high rainfall and biodiversity.

Desert Biome

Hot or cold climate with very low rainfall and sparse vegetation.

Ecosystem Services of Soil

Includes supporting plant growth, cycling nutrients, providing habitats, serving as an engineering medium, and filtering water.

Climate Factors Affecting Soil Formation

High temperatures speed decomposition, and increased precipitation leads to erosion.

Biotic Component of A-Horizon

Includes decomposers like millipedes and earthworms.

Abiotic Component of A-Horizon

Contains key nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus.

Agricultural Practice Increasing Nitrate Levels

Using industrial nitrate fertilizers.

Nitrate Levels and Groundwater

Fertilizers leach into groundwater after irrigation.

Acid Deposition and Plant Health

Removes essential nutrients from soil like potassium, nitrates, and phosphorus.

Remediating Acid-Impacted Soil

Adding limestone reduces acidity.

Climate Change and Soil Degradation

Rising sea levels increase salinity, and severe storms erode soil, removing nutrients.

Earth's Interacting Systems – Atmosphere

The layer of air surrounding Earth.

Earth's Interacting Systems – Hydrosphere

All the water on Earth's surface.

Earth's Interacting Systems – Geosphere

The solid part of Earth, including rock, soil, and sediment.

Earth's Interacting Systems – Biosphere

All living organisms and ecosystems on Earth.

Importance of Atmosphere

Provides oxygen and carbon dioxide, absorbs solar radiation, moderates climate, and transports/recycles water and nutrients.

Atmospheric Pressure

Caused by the weight of air, calculated as pressure = weight/area.

Atmospheric Pressure and Altitude

As altitude increases, pressure decreases.

Permanent Gases in Atmosphere

Nitrogen (78.1%), oxygen (20.9%), and other gases less than 1%.

Variable Gases in Atmosphere

Includes water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of the atmosphere where almost all weather occurs.

Stratosphere

Contains the helpful ozone layer that absorbs harmful UV radiation.

Thermosphere

The layer where glowing gases known as auroras (northern lights) occur.

Temperature in Thermosphere

Increases due to absorption of high-energy solar radiation.

Temperature Decrease at Mesopause

Occurs as energy levels drop with reduced particle collisions.

Temperature Increase at Stratopause

Due to absorption of UV radiation by the ozone layer.

Temperature Decrease at Tropopause

Caused by thinning air and reduced ability to hold heat.

Layers of the Atmosphere (in order)

Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere.

Layers of the Atmosphere Acronym

Tiny Silly Mice Take Elevators.

Anthropogenic Soil Degradation

Human-caused soil damage from overuse, deforestation, and chemical contamination.

Properties of Soil

Determined by texture, structure, moisture, and organic matter content.

Physical Properties Relating to Landfill Groundwater Contamination

Includes soil permeability, porosity, and compactness.

Soil's Chemical Properties – Low CEC

Soils with low cation exchange capacity (CEC) hold fewer nutrients and are less fertile.

Soil's Chemical Properties – High CEC

Soils with high CEC retain more nutrients, making them more fertile.

Characteristics of Clay and High CEC

Clay's small particle size and high surface area allow it to hold many nutrients and water.

Growing Crops in Low CEC Soil

Add organic matter or fertilizers to improve soil fertility.

Best Agricultural Soil

Loam, because it has a balanced mix of sand, silt, and clay, offering good drainage and nutrient retention.

Peninsula and South Bay Soils

Typically characterized by specific local climate and geologic factors.