AP Biology Review

AP Biology Vocabulary Flashcards

Monomer

The subunit that serves as a building block of a polymer.

Polymer

A large molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.

Carbohydrates (Monomer)

Monosaccharides

Proteins (Monomer)

Amino acids

Nucleic acids (Monomer)

Nucleotides

Water

2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen bonded together with COVALENT bonds. It is POLAR.

Cohesion

Water molecules attached to each other.

Adhesion

Water molecules attached to OTHER things.

Surface Tension

Hydrogen bonds resist being stretched.

Nitrogen (function)

Used to build proteins and nucleic acids.

Phosphorus (function)

Used to build acids and certain lipids.

Carbohydrates

Sugars and starches, contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Lipids

Fats and oils, mostly carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, nonpolar.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus.

Proteins

Amino Acids, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur.

Dehydration Synthesis

Monomers are joined by removal of OH (carboxyl) from one monomer and removal of H from another at the site of bond formation.

Hydrolysis

Monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, adding OH (carboxyl) to one monomer and H to the other.

Nucleic Acids

Biological information is encoded in sequences of nucleotide monomers, contains a five carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), phosphate, and nitrogen base (ATGC or U).

Carbohydrates

Dehydration synthesis of two monosaccharides makes a disaccharides, comprised of sugar monomers whose structures determine the properties and functions of the molecules.

Lipids

Fats, Steriles, Phospholipids; Nonpolar macromolecules; storage/consumed fats, make up cell membranes.

Saturated Fatty Acids

No double bonds.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Yes double bonds, more flexible.

Peptide Bond

The combination of two amino acids.

Polypeptide Chain

Multiple combinations of amino acids.

Primary Structure of Protein

Quite literally just a long chain with an amino end and carboxyl end. Determined by the sequence order of their constituent amino acids.

Secondary Structure of Protein

Structure that rises through local folding of the amino acid chain into elements such as alpha-helices and beta sheets. The alpha helical conformation is a result of hydrogen bonding.

Tertiary Structure of Protein

The overall three-dimensional shape of the protein, which often minimizes free energy. Components: Hydrogen bonds, disulfate linkage, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions.

Quaternary Structure of Protein

Arises from non-covalent interactions between MULTIPLE polypeptide units.

Nitrogenous Base (Purines)

Adenine and Guanine, double ring.

Nitrogenous Base (Pyrimidines)

Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil; single ring.

Nucleic Acids Synthesis

Nucleotides are added to the 3’ end of the strand, leading to covalent bonds between nucleotides.

Antiparallel

Double helix, each strand runs in an opposite 5’-3’ orientation.

Cytosine

Binds with Guanine with 3 hydrogen bonds.

Adenine

Binds with Thymine with 2 hydrogen bonds.

Ribosomes

Comprised of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein. Their function is to synthesize protein according to mRNA sequence.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Occurs in TWO FORMS: rough and smooth.

Rough ER

Associated with membrane bound ribosomes, SYNTHESIZES PROTEINS USING THE ATTACHED RIBOSOMES.

Smooth ER

Does NOT have ribosomes bound to it, SYNTHESIZES LIPIDS.

Golgi Complex

Functions to correct folding and chemical modification of newly synthesized proteins and packaging for protein trafficking.

Mitochondria

Responsible for producing ATP, the main energy form used in cellular organisms.

Lysosomes

Hydrolytic enzymes are important in intracellular digestion, recycling of a cell’s organic materials, and programmed cell death (apoptosis).

Vacuole

Maintains turgor pressure in the cell by storing water or molecules in them. Plant Cells: Surrounded by a “tonoplast” membrane, Animal Cells: Act as balancers, to main homeostasis and balance within the cell so it doesn’t dry out/drown.

Exocytosis

The fusion of the vesicle with the cell membrane in order to dispose of waste.

Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

Affect the ability of a biological system to obtain necessary resources, eliminate waste products, and basically survive. The larger the ratio is, the more efficient the cell is going to be.

Phospholipid Bilayer

The fluid mosaic model of cell membranes consist of a structural framework of phospholipid molecules embedded with proteins and others that can flow around the surface of the cell within the membrane.

Passive Transport

Does NOT need ATP.

Active Transport

It DOES need ATP.

Concentration Gradients

The selective permeability of membranes allows for the formation of concentration gradients of solutes across the membrane.

Endocytosis

Cell takes in macromolecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles derived from the plasma membrane.

Exocytosis

Proteins are produced by the cell, Vesicles pinch off from the ER carrying these proteins and carry them to the golgi apparatus, golgi modifies it, Vesicle pinches off from the golgi and travels towards cell membrane, Vesicle fuses with the cell membrane and all the contents are released.

Aquaporins

Integral membrane proteins that allow for the passage of water into the cell.

Photosynthesis (Summary)

6CO2 + 6H20 + Light Energy, Water, Light and Carbon Dioxide creates Oxygen and Sucrose.

Chloroplasts

The site of photosynthesis in plants, where solar energy is converted into chemical energy.

Thylakoid

Absorbs the light in order to be converted into chemical energy, is a phospholipid bilayer.

Stroma

A dense solution and is the site of the DARK REACTIONS.

Granum

Stack of thylakoids.

Lumen

Source of LIGHT.

Photosynthetic Pigments

Absorb different wavelengths of light, and are the pigments that convert sun energy, includes chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids.

Photosystems

Has a collection of pigment molecules (chlorophyll a and b), light harvesting complex, reaction center, electron transport chain, embedded in the thylakoid membrane.

Photosystem 2

The first photosystem; Sunlight “excites” the chlorophyll. Light its absorbed by chlorophyll, gets transferred to primary electron acceptor PEA then passes this down an ETC through a series of molecules embedded in the thylakoid membrane.

Photosystem 1

Picks up energy from P1 and boosts it up to a PEA. These electrons are now transferred directly to proteins in the thylakoid membrane, activating NADPH reductase. Reduces NADP to NADPH.

Calvin Cycle

Uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to sugar (glucose).

Glycolysis (Summary)

2 ATP (from ADP), happens in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Krebs Cycle (Summary)

2-carbon Acetyl CoA combines with 4-carbon OA Acetate to form citrate, 2 ATP created.

NADH

NAD+ combines with 1 proton and 2 electrons to make NADH, NADH is used to carry these electrons to the electron transport chain.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

When electrons are transferred between molecules in a sequence of reactions as they pass through the ETC, the electrochemical gradient of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane is established.

ATP Synthase

Moves the hydrogen ions from high concentration to low concentration.

Fermentation

Allows glycolysis to proceed in the absence of oxygen and produces organic molecules, including alcohol and lactic acid, as waste products; Makes 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate and 2 NADH; There is no electron transport chain.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Glycolysis is still the same: ATP, Pyruvate, NO oxygen. This causes NAD+ regeneration, and makes more ATP.

Cell Communication

Cells that are near one another communicate through the release of chemical messengers.

Paracrine Signaling

Using ligands that can diffuse through the space between the cells, Cells communicate over relatively short distances, cells locally coordinate activities with their neighbours.

Autocrine Signaling

A cell signals to itself, releasing a ligand that binds to receptors on its own surface. Important during development, where it helps cells take on and reinforce their correct identities.

Endocrine Signaling

When cells need to transmit signals over long distances, they often use the circulatory system as a distribution network for the messages they send, Hormones are signals that are produced in one part of the body and travel through circulation to reach far-away targets.

Signal Transduction Pathways

The process that occurs AFTER a signaling molecule (ligand) from one cell has bound to the receptor on another cell. Intracellular signal transduction pathways: the chains of molecules that relay signals inside a cell after its been activated.

Ligand

The ligand-binding domain of a receptor recognizes a specific chemical messenger, which can be a peptide, chemical, or protein, in a specific 1:1 relationship.

Second Messengers

Molecules that relay and amplify the intracellular signal.

Mutation

A change in the structure of any signaling molecule affects the activity of the signaling pathway and can alter the cellular response

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis for a particular condition by regulating physiological processes. If a system is perturbed, negative feedback mechanisms return the system back to its target set point.

Positive Feedback

Positive feedback mechanisms amplify responses and processes in biological organisms. Amplification occurs when the stimulus is further activated, which, in turn, initiates an additional response that produces a system change.

Phosphorylation

The addition of a phosphate group to one or more sites on the protein, which alters the activity of the protein. The transfer of the phosphate group is catalyzed by the kinase enzyme.

Mitosis

The division of the genetic material in the nucleus.

Cytokinesis

The division of the cytoplasm.

Meiosis

Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes, half as many as the parent cell.

Mitosis (Summary)

Mitosis is a process that ensures the transfer of a complete genome from a parent cell to two genetically identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is a highly regulated series of events for the growth and reproduction of cells. Consists of sequential stages of interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis.

MPF

Controls the movement of G2 into the cell cycle by phosphorylating and activating proteins involved with chromosome condensation, nuclear envelope breakdown, spindle assembly. MPF self destruction enzyme signals the end of G2 checkpoint.

Growth Factors

Proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide.

Density Dependent Inhibition

In which crowded cells stop dividing.

Anchorage Dependence

Where cells are anchored to a substrate in order to divide.

Apoptosis

A type of programmed cell death in which cell components are disposed of in an orderly fashion and without damage to neighboring cells.

Mitosis

Mitosis plays a role in asexual reproduction of new cells or new organisms that reproduce; growth and development; and tissue repair: Injuries to a cell can be repaired by replicating the cell in a healthy form.

Chi-Squared Calculation

The sum of the OBSERVED data minus the EXPECTED data squared, divided by the EXPECTED data.

Critical Value

The number on the table; figure out your degrees of freedom, and ALWAYS use 0.05. This means that you are 95% sure of it being accurate.

Degrees of Freedom

Number of “choices” that you could possibly have minus 1.

Meiosis

Meiosis is the process that ensures the formation of haploid gamete cells in sexually reproducing diploid organisms. Purpose is to produce genetic variation in gametes.

Homologous chromosomes

Chromosomes begin to condense. These are homologous chromosomes, one set from mom and one set from dad. Synapsis: chromosomes pair up and twist around each other, aligned gene by gene .There are 4 of these, called tetrads.

Crossing Over

During meiosis 1, homologous chromatids exchange genetic material via a process called “crossing over” (recombination) which increases genetic diversity among resultant gametes. In Prophase 1, there are crossover points that are called chiasma.

Nondisjunction in Meiosis

Nondisjunction in Meiosis I results in failure of homologous chromosomes to separate, and aneuploidy; too many or too few chromosomes in resulting gametes.

Genotype

The set of alleles carried by an organism.

Phenotype

An organism’s observable features.

Homozygous dominant

Two dominant alleles.