AP Psychology Unit 0 & 1

Rationalism

Considers reasons as the source of knowledge

• Believe in intuition

• Claim that individuals have innate knowledge or concepts

Empiricism

Considers experience as the source of knowledge

• Do not believe in intuition

• Claim that individuals have no innate knowledge

The belief that all knowledge comes from sensory experience and real-world observation. John Locke's "tabula rasa".

Cynicism

A strong lack of trust in people. It is the belief that people only act for selfish reasons instead of doing good

Pragmatism

An approach that emphasizes practicality and considers whether information and ideas make sense together

Innatism

Philosophical idea that the mind is born with a set of pre-existing knowledge, ideas, or mental structures rather than being a blank slate

Hindsight bias

Our belief, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. The “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon

Overconfidence

We tend to think we know more than we do, and we are certain that our beliefs are correct

Crticial thinking

Does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions

• Examines assumptions

• Discerns hidden values

• Evaluates evidence

Hypothesis

A testable, verifiable, refutable prediction

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

Operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study, since not everyone agrees on the meanings of terms

Case study

Studies one or more individuals in great depth in the hope of revealing data points true of us all

• The subject is atypical, results may not be applicable to to others

• Useful in cases where the subject has a rare condition

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation, generally without the subjects’ awareness

• Focuses exclusively on observable behavior

• Lack of contact with subjects means there is no ability to understand motives causing behavior

Survey

Technique for ascertaining the self-reporting attitudes or behaviors of people, usually be questioning a representative, random sample of people

• Gets large amounts of data quickly and easily

• Sampling bias issues, wording of questions can impact results, people are not always honest

Random sample

Everyone has a change of being included (names from a hat)

Correlation

Means association, it is a measure of the extent to which two numeric variables are related

• Shows relationships between variables

• Doesn’t prove causality, can be influenced by third party variables

Positive correlation

If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other

Negative correlation

If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other

Zero correlation

There is no relationship between the two variables

Experimentation

Used to demonstrate cause and effect and involves random assignment

Experimental group

The condition that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable (receives the treatment)

Control group

The condition that contrasts with the experimental treatment (does not receive the treatment). Serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Placebo

An inert substance administered instead of an active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent

Double blind procedure

Both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

• Avoids placebo effect and researcher’s bias

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is being manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent variable

One that depends on other factors, namely the treatment

Confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment by impacting the relationship between the dependent variable and independent

Experimenter bias

Occurs when a researcher acts in a manner that encourages subjects to respond in a way that supports their hypothesis

Longitudinal Study

A study that examines the same group of people repeatedly over a long period of time

Cross-Sectional Study

A study that compares different groups of people at one point in time, often different age groups

Cohort Effect

Differences between groups caused by historical experiences unique to a generation, rather than age itself

Hawthorne Effect

The tendency for people to change their behavior when they know they are being observed or studied

Illusory correlation

A cognitive bias where a relationship is perceived between two variables when none exists, often leading to misunderstanding of data

Validity

The degree to which a test, measure, or experiment actually measures what it claims to measure

Informed consent

The ethical principle that research participants must be told enough about a study (purpose, procedures, risks, and the right to withdraw)

Debriefing

The post-study process where researchers explain the true purpose, procedures, and findings to participants and answer their questions

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups

Histogram

A graphical representation of data using bars to show the frequency or distribution of numerical variables

Mode

The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a data set

Mean

Tthe average value of a set of numbers

Median

The middle value in a data set

Skewed distribution

One in which scores are not distributed symmetrically around the mean

Correlation coefficient

Numerical measure of relationship strength ranging from -1.00 to +1.00