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Empiricism
Emphasized by Francis Bacon in the 17th century; the belief that conclusions should be based on the observation of natural data rather than relying on principles established from tradition or religion
Social Contract
Thomas Hobbes and John Locke viewed political life as a result of this; an agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits
Natural Rights
Locke believed that all people had rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property (possessions)
Hobbes
Argued that people’s natural state was to live in a bleak world in which life was “nasty, brutish, and short,”; by agreeing to a social contract, they gave up some rights to a strong central government in return for law and order
Locke
Argued that the social contract implied the right, even the responsibility of citizens to revolt against unjust government; believed in natural rights; he proposed that a child was born with a mind like a “blank slate” (tabula rasa), waiting to be filled with knowledge
Baron Montesquieu
His ideas were important to the writers of the new constitutions in France and America; praised the British government’s use of checks on power because it had the parliament; the American system adopted his ideas by separating the three branches of government
Voltaire
Best known for his social satires; he was famous during his lifetime for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties; while he was exiled for three years due to a conflict with a member of the French aristocracy, he lived in England long enough to develop an appreciation for its constitutional monarchy and a regard for civil rights; he brought these ideas back to France, where he campaigned for religious liberty and judicial reform; his idea of religious liberty influenced the US Constitution
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Optimistic writer who expanded on the idea of the social contract as it had passed down through the work of Hobbes and Locke; in his writing he laid out his ideas on raising children and education, and presented the concept of the General Will
Adam Smith
One of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment; responded to mercantilism (an economic system that was based on the idea that a nation’s wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and trade) by calling for freer trade; he did support some government regulations and saw the benefits of taxes, but he generally advocated for laissez-faire, a French phrase for “leave alone,” which meant that governments should reduce their intervention in economic decisions; his ideas provided a foundation for capitalism (economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and are operated for profit)
Deism
The enlightenment’s emphasis on reason led some thinkers to reexamine the relationship of humans to God, and Some adopted the belief that a divinity simply set natural laws in motion; believed that these laws could be understood through scientific inquiry rather than the study of the bible
Thomas Paine
Militant in his defense of Deism; his previous work Common Sense (1776) made him popular in America for advocating liberty from Britain, but his anti-church writings damaged much of his popularity
Conservatism
Blamed the struggles of the poor on the poor; a belief in traditional institutions, favoring reliance on practical experience over ideological theories, such as that of human perfectibility
Socialism
A system of public or direct worker ownership of the means of production, such as the mills to make cloth and machinery needed to mine coal
Classical Liberalism
A belief in natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire, economics, and reduced spending on armies and established churches; in Britain they pursued changes in Parliament to reflect changing population patterns so that new industrial cities would have equal parliamentary representation; Supported the broadening of male suffrage (ability to vote)
Feminism
The movement for Women’s rights and equality based on Enlightenment ideas
Mary Wollstonecraft
Published A Vindication of the Rights of Women; argued that females should receive the same education as males; wanted women to gain the same rights and abilities as men through the application of reason
The Dreyfus Affair
Support for Zionism increased after a scandal in France; Alfred Dreyfus was a Jewish military officer who was convicted with treason (betraying one’s country) against the French government in 1894, but the conviction was based on forged documents by people promoting anti-semitism and he was ultimately pardoned after time in prison; illustrated how widespread anti-Semitism was in France.
Abolitionism
The movement to end the Atlantic Slave Trade and free all enslaved People that gained followers in the 18th century
Serfdom
Declined as the economy changed from agrarian to industrial; peasant revolts pushed leaders toward reform
Henry de Saint-Simon
Utopian socialist of France; believed that scientists and engineers working together with business could operate clean, efficient, and beautiful places to work that produced things useful to society; he also advocated for public works that would provide employment
Charles Fortier
Utopian socialist; identified some 810 passions that when encouraged, would make work more enjoyable and workers less tired; like other utopian socialists, he believed that a fundamental principle of utopia was harmonious living in communities rather than class struggle
Robert Owen
Utopian socialist from Great Britain; established intentional communities- small societies governed by the principles of utopian socialism in Scotland (New Lanark) and India (New Harmony); believed in education for children who worked, communal ownership of property, and community rules to govern work, education, and leisure time
Fabian Society
Socialist group from the late 19th century that formed in England; gradual socialists: they favored reforming society by parliamentary means
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