psyc 100- chap. 11

Personality

The distinguishing pattern of psychological characteristics - thinking, feeling, behaving - that differentiates us from others and leads us to act consistently across situations.

Self-Report Inventories

Questions about how one typically feels, thinks, and behaves, comparing one's answers to the average of thousands of others.

Example: 

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

• The Big Five Inventory (BFI)

What is Reliability?

How consistent a measure is

Example: 

• Test-retest reliability: People score similarly on the test when given at time 1 and time 2

What is Validity?

How well a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

• There are two types: Predictive and Concurrent

Predictive validity

How well do test scores predict what we are intending to measure.

Example:

• How well do SAT scores predict college GPA?

Concurrent validity

How well does a new test score match up with scores of another test.

Example: How well does score on new depression measure match up with established PHQ-9 score?

How can you analyze self report data?

Factor Analysis

How does Factor analysis work:

• Use correlation coefficients (i.e., how variables are related)

• Identify factors that cluster together

• Reduces data complexity

• Enhances theoretical understanding

Projective Personality Tests

Tests that ask the person to interpret ambiguous stimuli to 'project' their feelings or thoughts.

Example:

• Association technique = Rorschach Test

• Construction technique = Thematic Apperception Test

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A construction technique used in projective personality tests that involves interpreting a series of pictures.

Trait theory

A system of assessing people for differences in how people act consistently in various situations.

• Use rating tests or questionnaires in large samples

What is the goal of trait theory?

• To reduce trait terms down to most basic personality domains

• Example: Kindness, warmth, generosity = agreeableness

Raymond Cattell: Source Traits

Identified 16 Basic personality dimensions through factor analysis.

What are the three Superfactors?

1. Extroversion

2. Neuroticism

3. Psychoticism

Eysenck's Trait Theory

a theory that categorizes personality traits into three dimensions: neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism

Eysenck’s Trait Theory: Extraversion-Introversion

a personality dimension that reflects the degree of sociability and outgoingness

Eysenck’s Trait Theory: Neuroticism-Emotional Stability

a personality dimension that reflects the degree of emotional stability and resilience

Eysenck’s Trait Theory: Psychoticism-Impulse Control

a personality dimension that reflects the degree of impulse control and self-regulation

Humanistic Theory

A perspective in psychology that emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual.

Social-Cognitive Theory

A theory that emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of personality.

Gordon Allport's Trait Theory

a theory that identifies three types of traits: central traits, cardinal traits, and secondary traits

Gordon Allport: Cardinal Traits

traits that are less enduring and influence all or nearly all areas of an individual's life

Gordon Allport: Central Traits

traits that dominate individuals' whole behavior and are highly characteristic of an individual

Gordon Allport: Secondary Traits

traits that are general and less specific, such as liking the outdoors or enjoying foreign films

The Big Five-Factor Model

a model that includes five major personality traits: openness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness

The Big Five Personality Tests

Assessments designed to measure the five major dimensions of personality

What is the Big Five Factor Model?

1. Openness

2. Conscientiousness

3. Extraversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Neuroticism

What is Conscientiousness?

Behaviors associated with: competence, order, dutifulness, attitude towards achievement, self-discipline and planning.

What are the Limitations of Trait Theory?

1. Oversimplification

2. Lack of contextual consideration

3. Cannot explain how and why the major dimension of personality developed

What are the Strengths of Trait Theory?

1. Stimulated considerable research

2. Identified core dimension of personality

3. Applied to important behavioral and social issues

Personality Development Theories

theories that explain how personality develops, including humanistic, social cognitive, and psychodynamic perspectives

Psychodynamic Perspective

a perspective that suggests we are not aware of what factors produce our personality and cannot change or control it

• Sigmund Freud

Levels of Consciousness

according to Freud, includes conscious, preconscious, and unconscious minds

Freud: Conscious Mind

one's conscious awareness, including thoughts and feelings at the moment

Freud: Preconscious Mind

connects with conscious and unconscious minds and contains information accessible to the conscious mind when needed

Freud: Unconscious Mind

contains painful and threatening memories and impulses too threatening for conscious awareness

Three Components of Human Personality: Id

● Core of personality

● Pleasure principle

● Animalistic drives

Three Components of Human Personality: Ego

● Develops out of id and subdues its impulses

● Reality principle

● Go-between for id and reality

Three Components of Human Personality: Superego

● Sense of right and wrong based on morality

● Idealistic principle

● Regulated by ego ideal and conscience

● Shaped by experience

What is the Purpose of Defense Mechanisms?

Assist the ego in dealing with conscious and unconscious threats of anxiety

Defense Mechanisms: Repression

Unconsciously keeping unpleasant information from your conscious mind.

Example: Being abused as a child but not remembering the abuse

Defense Mechanisms: Denial

Denying that something exists.

Example: A husband may refuse to recognize obvious signs of his wife’s infidelity

Defense Mechanisms: Reaction Formation

Replacing an unwanted impulse with its opposite.

Example: Being sad about a recent breakup, but acting happy about it

Defense Mechanisms: Projection

Assigning your own unacceptable feelings or qualities to others.

Example: Feeling attracted to someone other than your spouse, then fearing that your spouse is cheating on you.

Defense Mechanisms: Displacement

Taking feelings out on others.

Example: Being angry at your boss but taking it out on your spouse instead.

Defense Mechanisms: Rationalization

Justifying an unacceptable feeling or behavior with logic.

Example: Being denied a loan for your dream house, then saying it's a good thing because the house was too big anyway

Defense Mechanisms: Regression

Reverting to earlier behaviors.

Example: Hugging a teddy bear when you're stressed, like you did when you were a child

Defense Mechanisms: Sublimation

Converting unacceptable impulses into more acceptable outlets.

Example: Being upset with your spouse but going for a walk instead of fighting.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Theory describing personality development through five stages:

○ Oral

○ Anal

○ Phallic

○ Latent

○ Genital

Oral Stage

• Birth to 1 year

• focused on the mouth

• consequence of fixation includes latent aggressive or passive tendencies.

Anal Stage

• 1 to 3 years old

• focused on anus and bladder

• consequence of fixation includes anal retentiveness or anal expulsiveness.

Phallic Stage

• 3 to 5 years old

• focused on genitals

• roots of fixation with the opposite sex parent (Oedipus or Electra complex).

Latent Stage

• 6 to 12 years old

• dormant sexual feelings

• consequence of fixation includes inability to form healthy relationships as an adult.

Genital Stage

• 13 years old +

• mature sexual feelings

• consequence of fixation includes inability to develop meaningful healthy relationships.

What are the strengths of the Psychoanalytic Theory?

1. Perspective based on biased sample of clinical observations.

2. Comprehensive and unifying perspective of personality.

3. Considerable influence on disciplines inside and outside of psychology.

What are the limitations of the Psychoanalytic Theory?

1. Perspective based on a set of loose and ambiguous terms and concepts that are difficult to verify objectively.

2. Stimulated the thinking of other perspectives of personality.

3. Problematic view of the development and expression of the female personality.

Alfred Adler's Neo-Freudian Perspective

Striving for Superiority; personality arises from desire to overcome feelings of inadequacy.

Carl Jung's Analytical Perspective

Believed there was more to human motivation than just sexual desires; included a general life force.

Collective Unconscious

Certain kinds of universal symbols and ideas are present in the unconscious of all people.

Archetypes

Enduring concepts that are passed from generation to generation,

Example: Hero, trickster, God, Mother, Earth.

Connection between irrational thoughts and psychological problems

Horney's lasting contribution to psychology, highlighting how irrational self-perceptions can lead to psychological issues.

Humanistic Theory of Personality Development

A theory emphasizing human capabilities of self-awareness, choice, responsibility, and growth in determining personality.

What are assumptions of Humanistic theory?

○ Each person is unique and whole

○ Environment influences the growth process

○ Behavior is dependent on the individual’s interpretation of reality

Carl Rogers: Self-concept

An organized set of perceptions about one's abilities and characteristics.

• focusing worth/identity on what parents value

Incongruence

The discrepancy between the image we hold of ourselves and the sum of all our experiences, leading to anxiety and psychological problems.

• Therapy = eliminate conditions of worth and enable a congruent self

Actual self

The perception of one's current skills, abilities, and qualities.

Ideal self

The perception of who one aspires to be, which can differ from the actual self.

Self-esteem

The overall favorability evaluation of one's sense of self.

Self-actualization

The tendency to seek self-improvement and personal enhancement.

• reaching full potential, creativity, personal growth

Conditional Positive Regard

Acceptance by others only when meeting their expectations.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance by others for who they are without passing judgment on them.

Abraham Maslow

The theorist who assumed that everyone has the need for self-actualization.

● Created the Needs Hierarchy

Needs Hierarchy

A model created by Maslow that categorizes human needs in a hierarchical structure.

What are the five levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (from top to bottom)?

• Self-Actualization

• Esteem Needs

• Love & Belonging

• Safety Needs

• Physiological Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Esteem

confidence, achievement, respect from others

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Love/Belonging

relationships, friendship, intimacy, connection

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Safety

security, stability, protection

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological

food, water, sleep, shelter

What are the Strengths of Humanistic Perspective?

• favorable view of personality operating on a conscious level

• emphasizes motivation for self-improvement.

What are the Limitations of Humanistic Perspective?

• Includes many concepts that are difficult to explain and objectively test

• Possibly overly optimistic about humans.

Bandura’s : Self-System

Set of cognitions used to observe and evaluate external stimuli

Example: 

• Self-Observation

• Self-Judgment

• Self-Reaction

Bandura’s : Self-Efficacy

• Personal beliefs regarding the possibility of successfully performing a specific behavior

• Confidence

What is Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism?

Beliefs, behaviors, and the environment interact to shape what's learned from experience.

Example: A student who likes art (personal) joins an art club (environment), paints more (behavior), and gains confidence — each factor influencing the others.

Rotter’s Social Learning Theory: Locus of Contro

• Internal: You control your outcomes.

• External: Outside forces control outcomes.

Person-Situation Debate

Behavior depends on both personality and situation.

Self-Monitoring

• Adjusting behavior to fit social situations.