clinical Notebook LM provided flashcards- basic 20th dec

What is the definition of schizophrenia provided in the notes?

A psychotic disorder involving a major break from reality, where the individual perceives the world vastly differently to others.

What type of symptom is characterised by the presence of a psychological abnormality in schizophrenia?

Positive symptoms.

Define 'hallucinations' as a positive symptom of schizophrenia.

Involuntary perceptual experiences that happen in the absence of external stimuli.

A delusion of _ is a fixed belief where individuals see themselves as exceptional in some way.

grandeur

What is a 'delusion of persecution'?

A fixed belief that someone is out to get them.

What is the name for the delusion where a person feels that their thoughts are being removed from their mind?

Thought withdrawal.

Define 'thought broadcasting' as a delusion in schizophrenia.

The feeling that one's thoughts are being broadcasted to others.

What are negative symptoms of schizophrenia characterised by?

The absence of normal thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, leading to a feeling of being 'flat'.

What is 'alogia' in the context of schizophrenia symptoms?

A negative symptom defined as a lack of spoken language.

Define 'anhedonia' as a negative symptom of schizophrenia.

The inability to feel pleasure.

What is 'avolition'?

A symptom of schizophrenia characterised by a lack of motivation.

What is 'catatonia' as a symptom of schizophrenia?

A lack of movement or speech.

According to the notes, what is the typical age of onset for schizophrenia in females?

Early to mid-20s.

What was the significance of the Aneja et al. case study regarding the age of onset for schizophrenia?

It demonstrated that younger people, below the typical onset age, can suffer from schizophrenia.

In the Aneja et al. case study, what two negative symptoms did the boy display?

Alogia (spoke very little) and asociality (preferred to be alone).

What was the primary aim of the Freeman et al. (2003) key study, according to the journal article?

To study whether nonclinical individuals have thoughts of a persecutory nature in virtual reality.

Who was the sample in Freeman et al.'s (2003) study on VR and paranoia?

24 individuals (12 female, 12 male) from UCL with no history of mental illness.

In Freeman et al. (2003), why were participants not informed that the study was specifically examining persecutory thoughts?

This deception was used to avoid priming the participants and influencing their behaviour in the VR environment.

What research design technique did Freeman et al. (2003) use to control for the priming effect of the questionnaire?

Counterbalancing, where half the participants completed the questionnaire before the VR task and half completed it after.

In the VR-Paranoia Questionnaire used by Freeman et al. (2003), what did items 6-10 measure?

Ideas of reference.

What was a key weakness related to generalisability in Freeman et al.'s (2003) study?

The sample size was very small (24 participants) and consisted mainly of students from one university (UCL).

According to the evaluation, what was the average presence rating in Freeman et al.'s (2003) study, and why was this a weakness for ecological validity?

The average rating was 2.4/6, suggesting participants did not feel fully 'there', meaning their reactions might not reflect real-life settings.

How did Freeman et al.'s (2003) study use both nomothetic and idiographic approaches?

It used a nomothetic approach with the quantitative questionnaire data and an idiographic approach with the qualitative semi-structured interview.

According to the original dopamine hypothesis, an excess of dopamine was thought to be responsible for which type of schizophrenia symptoms?

Positive symptoms, such as hallucinations and delusions.

The revised dopamine hypothesis by Kenneth Davis et al. (1990s) suggested a dopamine deficiency in which brain area might explain negative symptoms?

The prefrontal cortex and mesocortical pathways.

What does the term 'upregulation' mean in the context of the 2006 dopamine deficiency hypothesis?

The brain compensates for low dopamine by increasing the number of receptors on the postsynaptic cell.

What effect do amphetamines, which increase dopamine levels, have on individuals?

They can induce schizophrenia-like positive symptoms in healthy individuals and worsen them in those with the disorder.

How is the biochemical explanation of schizophrenia considered reductionist?

It reduces the complex disorder to the level of a single neurotransmitter (dopamine), ignoring other neurotransmitters and psychological or environmental factors.

According to the cognitive explanation, errors in what process contribute to schizophrenia symptoms like auditory hallucinations?

Errors in self-monitoring, specifically struggling to distinguish internal monologue from external auditory stimuli.

In the Allen et al. study, how did the brain activity of voice-hearers with schizophrenia differ from controls when listening to their own recorded voice?

Their brain activity was the same regardless of whether the voice was their own or someone else's.

In the Garety et al. (1991) 'beads in a jar' study, what cognitive bias did people with schizophrenia demonstrate?

They showed a 'jumping to conclusions' bias, requesting fewer beads before making a judgment and changing their mind based on minimal evidence.

What is the primary mechanism of action for 'typical antipsychotics' like chlorpromazine?

They are dopamine antagonists, blocking D2 receptors on the postsynaptic cell to reduce dopamine signalling.

How do 'atypical antipsychotics' like clozapine differ from typical antipsychotics in their mechanism?

They block both dopamine and serotonin receptors, which helps to balance dopamine rather than just reducing it significantly.

What was a key finding of the Zhao et al. (2016) meta-analysis on antipsychotics?

17 out of 18 antipsychotics were found to have a lower relapse rate than placebos, providing evidence for their effectiveness.

Modern Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is administered under _ to avoid pain and full-body seizures.

general anaesthetic

What was the main aim of the Sensky et al. (2000) study?

To compare the efficacy of one-to-one CBT with a 'befriending' intervention for people with schizophrenia.

In Sensky et al. (2000), what was the purpose of the 'befriending' group?

It acted as a control group to ensure that improvements were due to CBT techniques and not just the attention of a therapist.

What was the key difference in results between the CBT and befriending groups at the 9-month follow-up in Sensky et al.'s (2000) study?

Only the CBT group showed continuous improvement, whereas the initial improvements in the befriending group were no longer evident.

What CBT technique was used to treat delusions in the Sensky et al. (2000) study?

Socratic questioning was used to verbally challenge the client's irrational beliefs and help them examine evidence.

A key strength of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is its _ reliability, shown when people are tested twice, one week apart.

test-retest

What is a major weakness of the BDI related to the type of data it relies on?

It relies on self-reported data, which can be affected by social desirability bias or exaggeration of symptoms.

According to the ICD-11, what is the minimum duration for a period of depressed mood or diminished interest to be classified as a single depressive episode?

At least two weeks.

What is the key diagnostic difference between Bipolar I and Bipolar II disorder according to the ICD-11?

Bipolar I involves at least one episode of extreme mania, while Bipolar II involves at least one hypomanic (milder mania) episode and one depressive episode.

A weakness of the ICD-11's reliability is that clinicians are less likely to agree on a diagnosis of Bipolar compared to Bipolar .

Two; One

In Seligman's experiment on learned helplessness, why did the third group of dogs not learn to escape the shocks in the shuttle box?

They had previously learned that the shocks were inescapable, developing the cognition that they were helpless.

What is the 'personalisation' dimension of pessimistic attributional style?

Attributing negative events to internal causes (e.g., 'it was my fault').

What is the difference between a 'global' and a 'specific' attribution?

A global attribution applies a negative outcome to all areas of life, while a specific attribution confines it to one particular event.

In Seligman's supporting study, what was the correlation found between depressive attributions and symptom severity?

There was a positive correlation between depressive attributions for negative events and the severity of depressive symptoms.

According to the biochemical explanation of depression, a deficiency of which neurotransmitter is a primary cause?

Serotonin.

The monoamine hypothesis suggests that an imbalance of serotonin can cause levels of another neurotransmitter, _, to drop, leading to a depressive episode.

noradrenaline

What did Raleigh et al.'s study on vervet monkeys suggest about the influence of nurture on serotonin levels?

It showed that social status (an environmental factor) could cause significant changes in serotonin levels.

According to Kendler et al.'s twin study, what were the concordance rates for depression in female monozygotic (MZ) versus dizygotic (DZ) twins?

44% for MZ twins compared to 16% for DZ twins.

What is a major criticism of using twin studies to support the genetic explanation of mood disorders?

They may overestimate genetic influence because MZ twins are often treated more similarly than DZ twins, confounding nature and nurture.

How do Tricyclic antidepressants work?

They block the reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline in the presynaptic cell, increasing their availability in the synapse.

Why are MAOIs (monoamine oxidase inhibitors) typically only used if other antidepressants have not worked?

They can have harmful interactions with certain foods containing tyramine, which can increase the risk of a stroke.

What is the specific mechanism of action for SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)?

They selectively block the serotonin transporter molecules (SERT), preventing the reabsorption of serotonin into the presynaptic cell.

According to Cipriani et al.'s (2018) meta-analysis, how effective were antidepressants compared to placebos?

All 21 drugs investigated were found to be more effective than placebos in reducing depressive symptoms.

What is the 'nocebo effect' in the context of antidepressants?

When a person experiences negative side effects from a placebo because they expect them from the real drug.

What was the main aim of the Oruc et al. (1997) key study?

To determine if specific polymorphisms of two genes associated with serotonin were more common in people with bipolar disorder.

In the Oruc et al. (1997) study, what was the key conclusion regarding the association between the studied gene polymorphisms and bipolar disorder?

No significant association was found, though variations in these genes may cause a minor increase in susceptibility for women.

According to Beck's cognitive theory, depression is caused by the 'cognitive triad' of negative views about what three things?

The self, the world, and the future.

Define 'dichotomous thinking' as one of Beck's cognitive biases.

An 'all or nothing' mindset, where situations are viewed in absolute terms.

What is the cognitive bias of 'arbitrary inferences'?

Drawing conclusions without sufficient or any supporting evidence.

In Beck's cognitive restructuring, what is the purpose of 'Socratic questioning'?

The therapist asks probing questions to help the client analyse their negative thoughts and challenge their validity.

In Albert Ellis's Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), what does the 'A' in the ABC model stand for?

Activating event.

What is 'musturbation' according to Albert Ellis?

The way some people allow three core irrational beliefs, or 'musts', to control their thoughts, feelings, and behaviour.

What is the primary technique used in REBT to challenge a client's irrational beliefs?

Disputing.

According to Fava et al., how does combining cognitive therapy with antidepressants affect relapse rates?

The risk of relapse is lower compared to using antidepressants alone.

According to the notes, what defines Impulse Control Disorders (ICDs)?

Disorders characterised by excessive or harmful urges and behaviours that cause significant impairment in functioning.

A delusion of _ is when a person believes that random events have personal significance for them.

reference

The original dopamine hypothesis states that messages from neurons that transmit dopamine fire too easily or too often, leading to _ symptoms.

positive

According to the CBT techniques table, what strategy was suggested to help clients with negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

Paced activity scheduling to minimise fatigue and keeping a diary of pleasurable moments.

What is a major limitation of case studies like Aneja et al.?

The findings are difficult to generalise to a wider population because they are based on one individual or a very small group.

In Sensky et al. (2000), why was it a strength that a 'blind' rater assessed a sample of the therapy tapes?

It improved internal validity by checking that the befriending sessions did not contain CBT elements and that the CBT was delivered correctly.

What is a potential weakness of the longitudinal design used in the Sensky et al. (2000) study?

Participant drop-out can reduce the representativeness of the final sample, limiting the generalisability of the findings.

How does Seligman's theory of learned helplessness apply the concept of determinism versus free will?

It is deterministic in that past experiences can lead to a belief of helplessness, but it allows for free will through therapy, where one can learn to change their cognitions.

What is the name of the process where a postsynaptic cell compensates for low serotonin by creating more receptors?

Upregulation.

Why is the genetic explanation of mood disorders considered to be on the 'nature' side of the nature vs nurture debate?

It focuses on the role of hereditary factors and genetic inheritance in causing the disorder.

What ethical issue regarding the antidepressant industry was raised by Turner et al. (2008)?

Publication bias, where studies with negative results are often not published or are presented in a misleadingly positive way.

An ethical issue with REBT is that it may encourage people to _ injustice rather than empowering them to challenge it.

accept