EXAM review 1 for BIOL 2301

Covalent

A type of chemical bond where atoms share pairs of electrons, allowing for the formation of stable molecules.

Ionic

A type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, formed when one atom donates an electron to another.

Hydrogen

A type of chemical bond that occurs when hydrogen atoms form bonds with electronegative atoms, resulting in a weak attraction between molecules.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak bond formed when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom is attracted to another electronegative atom.

Why is water called the biological solvent?

Water is called the biological solvent because it can dissolve many substances, facilitating chemical reactions essential for life.

Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier surrounding the cell, composed of a lipid bilayer that regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

How does DNA code?

DNA codes for proteins through sequences of nucleotides that are transcribed into mRNA and translated into amino acids.

Transcription Process

Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA), which then carries the code for protein synthesis.

Translation Process

Translation is the process by which the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA is decoded to synthesize proteins, involving ribosomes and transfer RNA (tRNA) to assemble amino acids.

Ectoderm

The outermost layer of cells in an embryo that develops into the skin and nervous system.

Mesoderm

One of the three primary germ layers in the early embryo, giving rise to muscles, bones, and the circulatory system.

Endoderm

The innermost germ layer in an embryo, which develops into the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and lungs.

Interphase

The phase of the cell cycle where the cell prepares for division, including DNA replication and growth.

G₁ subphase

The first phase of interphase, where the cell grows and synthesizes proteins necessary for DNA replication.

Synthesis Subphase

The part of interphase where DNA is replicated, resulting in the duplication of chromosomes in preparation for cell division.

G₂ Subphase

The final phase of interphase, where the cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis by synthesizing proteins and organelles necessary for cell division.

Prophase

The first stage of mitosis, during which chromosomes become visible, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers begin to form.

Prometaphase

The stage of mitosis following prophase, where the nuclear envelope breaks down and spindle fibers attach to kinetochores on the chromosomes.

Metaphase

The stage of mitosis where chromosomes align along the metaphase plate, ensuring that each daughter cell will receive one copy of each chromosome during cell division.

Anaphase

The stage of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart and move toward opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase

The final stage of mitosis, where the chromosomes decondense, the nuclear envelope re-forms around each set of chromosomes, and the cell prepares to divide into two daughter cells.

Diffusion

The passive movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, resulting in an even distribution.

Facilitated DIffusion

The process by which molecules diffuse across a membrane with the assistance of special proteins, allowing for the transport of substances that cannot directly pass through the lipid bilayer.

Osmosis

The passive movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.

Carrier Mediated Active Transport

The process by which specific proteins in the cell membrane transport molecules against their concentration gradient, requiring energy in the form of ATP.

Exocytosis

The process by which cells expel materials in vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents outside the cell.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells engulf materials from the outside environment, forming vesicles that bring substances into the cell.

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis where cells engulf large particles or microorganisms, forming an internal vesicle called a phagosome.

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis where cells take in small droplets of extracellular fluid, forming vesicles to internalize the liquid and dissolved substances.

Receptor mediated endocytosus

A specialized form of endocytosis where cells internalize specific molecules bound to receptors on the cell surface, forming vesicles.

Chromatin

The material that makes up chromosomes, consisting of DNA and proteins, which condenses to form chromosomes during cell division.

Nuclear envelope

The double membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus in eukaryotic cells, separating the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

The gel-like substance within a cell, excluding the nucleus, where various organelles are suspended and cellular processes occur.

Mitochondrion

An organelle found in eukaryotic cells, responsible for producing energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration.

Lysosome

An organelle that contains digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.

Centrioles

Cylindrical structures found in animal cells that play a crucial role in cell division by helping to organize the mitotic spindle.

Ribosomes

Cellular structures that synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A type of endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis and modification.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A type of endoplasmic reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium ion storage.

Golgi Apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

Simple Squamous

Epithelium consisting of a single layer of flat cells, facilitating diffusion and filtration. LUNGS

Simple Cuboidal

Epithelium composed of a single layer of cube-shaped cells, commonly found in glands and kidney tubules, involved in secretion and absorption.

Simple Columnar

Epithelium made up of a single layer of tall, column-like cells, often found in the digestive tract and involved in absorption and secretion.

Pseudostratified Columnar

Epithelium that appears to have multiple layers due to varying cell heights but is actually a single layer, commonly found in the respiratory tract and involved in secretion and movement of mucus.

Stratified Squamous

Epithelium composed of multiple layers of flat cells, providing protection against abrasion and commonly found in areas such as the skin, mouth, and esophagus.

Stratified cuboidal

Epithelium consisting of two or more layers of cube-shaped cells, primarily found in glandular ducts and offering protection and secretion.

Stratified Columnar

Epithelium made up of multiple layers of column-shaped cells, primarily found in certain glandular ducts and the male urethra, providing protection and secretion.

Transitional

Epithelium that can stretch and change shape, typically found in the urinary bladder and allowing for the expansion and contraction of the organ.

Skeletal muscle

A type of muscle tissue that is striated and under voluntary control, responsible for the movement of bones and locomotion.

Smooth Muscle

A type of muscle tissue that is non-striated and involuntary, found in walls of hollow organs such as the intestines and blood vessels, facilitating involuntary movements.

Cardiac Muscle

A type of muscle tissue that is striated and involuntary, found only in the heart, responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.

Neuroglial

A specialized cell that transmits nerve impulses, playing a key role in the nervous system for communication between different body parts.

Neuron

A specialized cell that transmits nerve impulses, playing a crucial role in the nervous system by facilitating communication between different body parts.

Connective Proper Tissue

A type of connective tissue that provides support, elasticity, and strength to various organs and structures in the body, including loose and dense connective tissues.

Cartilage

A flexible connective tissue that provides support and cushioning in joints, as well as structural integrity in various parts of the body, such as the nose and ears.

Bone

A rigid connective tissue that provides structural support, protection for organs, and facilitates movement by serving as a site for muscle attachment.

Blood

A liquid connective tissue that transports nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste products throughout the body while also playing a crucial role in immune response and regulation of body temperature.