Leukocytes

what are the 4 main types of neutrophilia (Count Abnormalities)

1. Physiologic

2. Glucocorticoid associated

3. Acute inflammatory

4. Chronic inflammatory

what 2 types of neutrophilia can occur in healthy animals (Count Abnormalities)

1. Physiologic

2. Glucocorticoid associated

what 2 types of neutrophilia can occur due to disease (Count Abnormalities)

1. Acute inflammatory

2. Chronic inflammatory

what causes Physiologic Neutrophilia (Count Abnormalities)

Occurs as the result of epinephrine and norepinephrine release associated with fear, excitement or vigorous exercise

Glucocorticoid is associated with (Count Abnormalities)

stress

what causes Glucocorticoid (Count Abnormalities)

Caused by the effects of endogenous (cortisol) or exogenous glucocorticoids.

Glucocorticoid results in (4) (Count Abnormalities)

1. Fewer neutrophils in the Marginated Pool and more in the Circulating Pool.

2. Fewer neutrophils enter the tissue so they have an increased circulating lifespan.

3. The older neutrophils may become hypersegmented.

4. This also results in increased release of segs mostly from the storage pool.

Acute Inflammatory Neutrophilia causes an increased release of (3) (Count Abnormalities)

1. Increased release of segmented and band neutrophils

2. Increased release from the storage pool, which takes a few hours after the onset of inflammation.

3. Release of cells from the maturing pool occurs after the depletion of the storage pool.

what causes Acute Inflammatory Neutrophilia (Count Abnormalities)

infection

what causes Chronic Inflammatory Neutrophilia (Count Abnormalities)

occurs because the release of neutrophils from the marrow exceeds the migration of neutrophils into the tissues.

what are the 2 main types of neutropenia (Count Abnormalities)

1. Inflammatory

2. Decreased production

what causes Inflammatory Neutropenia (Count Abnormalities)

1. when margination and emigration of neutrophils into inflamed tissue exceeds the release from the bone marrow

2. overwhelming bacterial infections

3. some viral infections

4. endotoxins

5. inflammatory states in cattle

Decreased Production Neutropenia occurs when (Count Abnormalities)

due to destruction of stem of blast cells in the bone marrow.

Ineffective Production Neutropenia occurs when (Count Abnormalities)

occurs when neutrophil precursors are damaged and die before they can be released.

what causes Decreased or Ineffective Production Neutropenia (6) (Count Abnormalities)

1. Toxoplasmosis

2. Parvovirus

3. Felv

4. Neoplastic (abnormal growth)

5. toxic

6. Myelofibrotic (abnormal stem cell production)

what are the 4 main types of Lymphocytosis (4) (Count Abnormalities)

1. “Lymphocytosis” of young animals:

2. Physiologic

3. Chronic inflammatory

4. Neoplastic

what causes Physiologic Lymphocytosis (Count Abnormalities)

Due to the effects of the catecholamines, causing lymphocytes to move from the marginated to the circulating pool.

what causes Chronic Inflammatory Lymphocytosis (Count Abnormalities)

Results from increased lymphopoiesis in response to chronic antigenic or cytokine simulations.

define Hyperplastic (Count Abnormalities)

enlargement of a part due to an abnormal numerical increase of its cells.

what causes Neoplastic Lymphocytosis (2) (Count Abnormalities)

1. Due to the neoplastic proliferation of lymphoid cells in the lymph nodes, bone marrow and other tissues.

2. Extreme lymphocytosis occurs with many lymphocytes having abnormal, immature morphology.

what are the 2 types of Lymphopenia (Count Abnormalities)

1. Glucocorticoid – Associated (Stress)

2. Acute Inflammatory

what causes Glucocorticoid – Associated (Stress) Lymphopenia (Count Abnormalities)

1. Due to endogenous or exogenous glucocorticoids

2. Movement of lymphocytes from the circulating pool into the tissues and or bone marrow and lymph nodes.

Chronically elevated glucocorticoid levels cause (2) (Count Abnormalities)

1. lymphoid hypoplasia

2. decreased production.

define Hypoplasia (Count Abnormalities)

abnormal deficiency of cells or structural elements.

what causes Acute Inflammatory Lymphopenia (Count Abnormalities)

Due to changes in lymphocyte kinetics stimulated by inflammatory mediators

define Mediators (Count Abnormalities)

A substance or structure that mediates a specific response in a bodily tissue

Lymphoma can be classified in one of two ways: (Count Abnormalities)

1. Anatomical Location

2. Extent of the disease

what are the 4 forms of Lymphoma (Count Abnormalities)

1. Multicentric

2. Mediastinal

3. Alimentary

4. Extranodal

define Multicentric lymphoma (Count Abnormalities)

generalized enlarged lymph nodes.

define Extranodal lymphoma (Count Abnormalities)

affecting organs and tissues

define Alimentary lymphoma (Count Abnormalities)

palpable abdominal mass

define Mediastinal lymphoma (Count Abnormalities)

enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes

clinical signs of Multicentric lymphoma (3) (Count Abnormalities)

1. Anorexia

2. weight loss

3. lethargy

4. nothing

clinical signs of Mediastinal lymphoma (8) (Count Abnormalities)

1. Dyspnea

2. tachypnea

3. regurgitation

4. cough

5. anorexia

6. depression

7. weight loss

8. pleural effusion

clinical signs of Alimentary lymphoma (3) (Count Abnormalities)

1. Anorexia

2. weight loss

3. v/d

clinical signs of Extranodal lymphoma (4) (Count Abnormalities)

1. renomegaly

2. itching

3. seizures

4. paralysis

how to diagnose (7) (Count Abnormalities)

1. enlarged lymph nodes

2. sent for cytology

3. Biopsy of mass

4. possibly bone marrow

5. Radiographs for mediastinal

6. radiographs abdominal masses

7. most diagnostic for diagnosis

how to treat Lymphoma (Count Abnormalities)

chemotherapy

Drug protocols for chemotherapy are typically divided into four phases: (Count Abnormalities)

1. Induction of Remission

2. Intensification

3. Maintenance

4. Rescue

All chemotherapy drugs have side effects, some include: (Count Abnormalities)

1. Anorexia

2. Vomiting

3. Leukopenia

4. Renal toxicity

5. Hemorrhagic cystitis

There are only two important causes of Monocytosis (Count Abnormalities)

1. Glucocorticoid

2. Inflammatory

define Mastocytemia (Count Abnormalities)

A mast cell is found in the peripheral blood

The parameters that must be examined in order to determine which of these four patterns a particular leukogram fits are: (5) (Count Abnormalities)

1. Total WBC numbers

2. Number of neutrophils

3. Age of neutrophils

4. Number of lymphocytes

5. Whether a monocytosis is seen

signs of a left shift (6) (Count Abnormalities)

1. immature neutrophils (bands) are present.

2. A lot of band cells present.

3. Mostly seen with acute inflammatory responses

4. Immature neutrophils exceed the number of mature neutrophils

5. the leukocyte count is low or normal.

6. animals condition is deteriorating.

when does left shift occur (Count Abnormalities)

Occurs when tissue demands are high.

signs of right shift (3) (Count Abnormalities)

1. hypersegmented neutrophils

2. Leukocytosis due to neutrophilia with the appearance of immature neutrophils.

3. Increased concentration of old neutrophils

what does right shift and left shift refer to (Count Abnormalities)

Refers to the change in numbers and ages of neutrophils.

— are the most numerous leukocyte in the blood and bone marrow

neutrophils

— and — are the most numerous in the entire body.

Lymphocytes and macrophages

function of neutrophil

to locate and phagocytose pathogenic microorganisms.

— are the first cells to arrive at the site of infection.

neutrophils

what are the 4 steps in migration sequence of neutrophils

1. Margination

2. Diapedesis

3. Chemotaxis

4. Migration

define the Margination step in neutrophil migration sequence

Approximately 50% of the neutrophil population in the blood vessels are adhered to the blood vessel walls (marginal pool)

define the diapedesis step in neutrophil migration sequence

Neutrophils that are in the marginating pool squeeze between the endothelial cells of the blood vessel wall and enter the tissues

define the chemotaxis step in neutrophil migration sequence

Neutrophils perform diapedesis due to the presence of chemotaxis. Inflammatory chemicals (chemotaxins) are released from other neutrophils and cells in the presence of microorganisms in tissues that draw the marginating neutrophils to the site

define the migration step in neutrophil migration sequence

Neutrophils follow the chemotaxins to the highest concentration (the source)

what are the 2 blood pools

1. The Circulating Pool

2. The Marginating/Marginal Pool

define circulating pool

Within the lumen of the blood vessel

define Marginating/Marginal Pool

Line the walls of the endothelium of blood vessels

what is it

receptors

what is it

phagosome

what is it

lysosome

what is it

phagolysosomes

define Immune Adherence

Neutrophil recognizes the microbe by binding to its cell surface

define Endocytosis

The microbe is engulfed by the neutrophil and becomes a phagosome.

define Lysosome Fusion

The neutrophilic granules are lysosomes which attach to the walls of the phagosome and discharge their contents into the vacuole (lysosomal enzymes).

how does leukocyte Killing and Digestion occur (2)

1. Lysosomal enzymes released into the phagosome from the lysosomes kill the microbe and break down the remains of the microbe

2. Useful components from the microbe are absorbed into the cytoplasm and used by the neutrophil.

define exocytosis

Waste products in the phagosome are eliminated from the cell.

— will continue killing microbes until they run out of granules, then they die.

Neutrophils

Dead neutrophils form —

pus

steps of opsonization (2)

1. Encapsulated microorganisms become coated with plasma proteins (antibodies) that are called opsonin

2. Once the microorganisms are coated in the opsonin the neutrophils can recognize them as microorganisms and perform phagocytosis

why is opsonization needed

Some microorganisms are more challenging for neutrophils to phagocytose as they can “hide” within a capsule 

define Mononuclear Phagocyte System

the bodies population of macrophages and monocytes.

Macrophages have many functions outside of the immune response including (3)

1. Catabolism of other dead tissue cells.

2. Removal of toxins, activated coagulation factors and immune complexes from the blood.

3. Catabolism of rbcs and iron metabolism.

define catabolism

to break down.

what are the 3 steps of phagocytosis

1. a bacterium engulfed by a macrophage is encased in a vacuole

2. lysosome fuse with the vacuole and digest the bacterium

3. antigens from digested bacterium are presented with MHC ll on the cell surface

— produce monokines

Macrophages

Macrophages can become activated by — secreted by Helper T cells

lymphokines

monokines

chemical substances which enhance other cells in the immune process and act as pyrogens in the inflammatory process.

APC stands for

Antigen Presenting Cells

Antigen Presenting Cells are Essential for the activation of (2)

1. Cell-Mediated Immunity (Memory cells)

2. Specific Immunity Response.

what does CMI stand for

Cell-Mediated Immunity

CMI is mediated by

T-lymphocytes

CMI Involves cells attacking cells and is directed against — pathogens and cells such as cancer cells and foreign tissue transplants

intracellular

T-cells can only bind to a foreign antigen and become activated if

the foreign antigen (FAg) is presented on the surface of an Antigen Presenting Cell.

Antigen Presenting Cells are

macrophages that ingest the foreign cell, process the FAg and then present it on their cells surface.

The activated T cell begins dividing rapidly and the resulting cells differentiate into 5 types of T cells:

1. Helper T-cells

2. Killer T-cells

3. Suppressor T-cells

4. Memory T-cells

5. Natural Killer Cells (NK cells)

The main function of Helper T cells is to produce chemical mediators called

Lymphokines

if lymphokines touches macrophage it’ll get an upgrade and … (4)

1. move fast

2. eat things faster

3. also attract B lymphocytes to help

4. bind process macrophages which signals multiplication of other T cells

function of supressor T-cells (4)

1. Regulate the immune response

2. producing lymphokines that inhibit T-cell proliferation

3. reduce Helper and Killer T-cell functioning

4. prevent B-cells from transforming to plasma cells.

function of memory T-cells (2)

1. recognize the FAg that originally stimulated their production

2. will stimulate a larger, quicker response if the FAg appears again.

NK cells stand for

Natural Killer Cells

NK cells are aka

null cells

how are NK cells identified

large granular lymphocytes

what does LGL stand for

large granular lymphocytes

define NK cells

cells kill target cells that ARE NOT sensitized by antibody or complement.

What does AMI stand for

antibody - mediated Immunity

AMI is mediated by

B-lymphocytes

An activated B cell begins dividing, resulting in two populations of cells:

1. Memory B cells

2. Plasma cells

Each Memory B-cell carries the same specific antigen receptor as the activated

B-cell.