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Informal Observation
A casual, unstructured way of gathering information by simply watching and noticing behaviors or patterns without systematic recording
Selective Observation
The tendency to notice information that aligns with preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence
Theory
systematic explanations of a natural or social behavior, event, or other phenomenon
Micro Level
sociologists examine the smallest levels of interaction—in some cases, just “the self” alone.
Meso Level
When sociologists investigate groups
Macro Level
sociologists examine social structures and institutions
Concept
a mental image of a particular phenomenon that summarizes its key aspects
Operational Definition
A definition or procedure for how researchers actually measure an abstract concept when they are collecting data
Reification
the assumption that an abstract concept exists in some concrete, tangible way
Mediation
A relationship where a third variable explains the connection between an independent and dependent variable
Moderation
A relationship where a third variable influences the strength or direction of the effect between an independent and dependent variable
Spuriousness
situations in which the relationship between two concepts seems to exist but, in reality, they are linked by a third concept
Reverse Causality
When the assumed direction of cause and effect is flipped, meaning the dependent variable actually influences the independent variable.
Bidirectional
A relationship where two variables influence each other in both directions, rather than one causing the other
Feedback Loop
A cyclical relationship where one variable affects another, which in turn influences the first variable, creating a continuous loop
Scope Condition
The specific boundaries or conditions under which a theory or explanation applies.
Positivism
A philosophical approach that emphasizes the use of empirical, scientific methods to study social phenomena, focusing on observable facts and objective truths
Social Constructionism
The theory that knowledge, reality, and meanings are created through social interactions and are influenced by culture and context
Critical Theory
A philosophical approach that critiques society and culture, aiming to uncover power structures, inequalities, and promote social change
Postmodernism
A cultural and intellectual movement that challenges traditional ideas, emphasizing relativism, subjectivity, and the rejection of universal truths and grand narratives
Empirical Questions
questions about the facts of the world around us
Normative/Ethical Questions
questions about what we as a society should value
Explanatory Research
A type of research aimed at identifying and understanding the cause-and-effect relationships between variables
Exploratory Research
A type of research conducted to explore a topic or issue, gather preliminary information, and identify patterns or ideas for further study
Descriptive Research
A type of research that aims to accurately describe characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena without manipulating variables
Inductive Approach
A research method that begins with specific observations and develops broader generalizations or theories based on patterns found in the data.
Deductive Approach
A research method that starts with a theory or hypothesis and tests it through data collection and analysis to confirm or refute the initial assumption
Abductive Approach
A research method that starts with incomplete observations and seeks the most likely explanation or theory to make sense of the data
Systematic Review
A comprehensive, structured process of evaluating and synthesizing research studies on a specific topic to draw conclusions based on all available evidence
Meta-Analysis
A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify overall trends or effects
Unit of Analysis
The primary entity being studied or analyzed in research, such as individuals, groups, organizations, or events
Probability Sampling
A sampling technique where each member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected for the study, ensuring representativeness
Non-probability Sampling
A sampling technique where not all members of the population have a chance of being selected, often based on convenience or judgment.
Sampling Frame
A list or database of all members in a population from which a sample is drawn for a study.
Nonrespondent Bias
A bias that occurs when individuals who do not respond to a survey or study differ in important ways from those who do, affecting the results
Simple Random Sampling
A sampling technique where the researcher gives all members of a population (more accurately, of a sampling frame) an equal probability of being selected
Systematic Sampling
A sampling technique where the researcher selects elements from a sampling frame in specified intervals
Periodicity
A pattern or regular interval of occurrence that can affect the randomness of a sample, potentially introducing bias if not accounted for
Stratified Sampling
A sampling technique where the population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on a specific characteristic, and samples are randomly selected from each subgroup
Clustered Sampling
A sampling technique where the population is divided into clusters, and a random sample of clusters is selected. All or a random sample of individuals within the chosen clusters are then studied
Pilot Study
Research that explores initial ideas or tests out data collection or analysis procedures as part of a more comprehensive project
Purposive Sampling
A non-probability sampling technique where participants are selected based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant to the research
Convenience Sampling
A sampling technique in which a researcher draws a sample from part of the population that is convenient to obtain—for instance, because potential interviewees are located near the researcher or otherwise are readily available.
Snowball Sampling
A sampling technique where researchers ask study participants they have already recruited to help identify additional participants
Quota Sampling
A non-probability sampling technique where the researcher selects participants to meet a predetermined quota for specific subgroups within the population
Iterative Sampling
A sampling strategy in which researchers move back and forth between the process of sampling and preliminary analysis of their data
Nominal Variable
A type of categorical variable that represents distinct categories or groups with no inherent order, such as gender or race
Ordinal Variable
A level of measurement in which a variable’s attributes can be numerically ranked from low to high values (or vice versa) using some kind of meaningful comparison
Scale Level Variable
A level of measurement where the variable’s attributes are ordered (like for ordinal-level variables) and the distance between those attributes is meaningful (unlike for ordinal-level variables)
Test-Retest Reliability
A method of assessing the reliability of a measure by collecting data from a sample and then retesting the same sample after a period of time. If the measure is reliable, the two measurements should be consistent.
Inter-rater Reliability
A method of assessing the reliability of a measure by examining the degree to which two or more observers (raters) agree on the measurement of one or more cases
Internal Consistency
The degree to which participants’ answers to items within a multiple-item measure are consistent. Specifically, the answers for each item in an index or scale should be correlated with each other, as they all are supposed to measure aspects of the same overall concept
Index
A composite measure created by combining multiple indicators, where each item is weighted equally or differently, to represent a broader concept
Scale
A measurement tool that assigns scores based on a set of items, with each item contributing to a single underlying dimension
Face Validity
The extent to which a measurement appears to accurately assess the intended concept based on subjective judgment
Content Validity
The extent to which a measurement fully captures all aspects of the concept it is intended to assess
Predictive Validity
The extent to which a measurement accurately predicts future outcomes or behaviors related to the concept being measured
Convergent Validity
The extent to which a measurement correlates with other measures of the same or similar concept, indicating it accurately captures the intended construct
Discriminant Validity
The extent to which a measurement does not correlate with unrelated constructs, showing that it measures a distinct concept
Random Error
Unpredictable variations in measurement that occur by chance, affecting reliability but not systematically biasing results
Systematic Error
A consistent, predictable error in measurement that skews results in a specific direction, reducing accuracy and validity
Acquiescence Bias
Bias that occurs when people tend to say “yes” to whatever the researcher asks, even when doing so contradicts previous answers
