Psychology Final Study

What is the main governing organization of Psychology

APA

Psychoanalytic

Led by Freud, the belief that behavior and personality are affected by one's inner thoughts and conflicts, mostly unconscious, childhood trauma and deeper desires drive an individual’s behavior

Behavioral

Led by Pavlov, the belief that behavior is observable and measurable, the study of behavior, Pavlov’s Dogs experiment, conditioned stimulus

Biopsychological

Studies biological, psychological, and social factors that influence behavior and cognitive development

Cognitive

Led by Miller, studies mental processes, direct behavior/thoughts/memory/and language acquisition

Humanistic

Led by Rogers & Maslow, the belief that human nature is largely positive, people are inclined towards growth and change for the better

Sociocultural

Led by Vygotsky, effects of social and cultural interaction on cognitive and behavioral development, external factors which affect identity

Evolutionary

Based on Darwin’s theory of evolution, behavior, and cognition are controlled and shaped by evolution/natural selection

Biological

Uses physiology to explain behavior and mental processes, utilizes genes, hormones, and the brain to study behavior and cognition

Independent variable

a variable which isn't dependent on other factors

Dependent variable

a variable whose value depends on other factors

Extraneous variable

any variable that has an effect on the outcome of an experiment yet is not accounted for during the experiment

Case study

detailed study of a specific subject, persons, groups, places, events, etc.

Naturalistic observation

observing study subjects in their natural environments

Experimental research

study done using the scientific method and two or more variables

Survey

questions aimed to obtain data from a specific set of individuals

Population

the entire group that a study derives data and results from

Sample

portion of the population that is actually observed

Representative sample

portion of the population with similar characteristics (ex. Population = 10:20 → Representative Sample = 1:2)

Reliability

The test’s results are capable of being accurately replicated by others

Validity

test accurately measures subject of study/what it was intended to measur

Cell body

also called soma, the core of neuron, holds genetic info and provides energy to drive neuron functions

Nucleus

the central area of neuron, holds genetic info, helps generate impulses through neuron's axon

Dendrites

receive and process messages /signals from other neurons, take transmissions and info to the nucleus

Axon

info travels as electrical impulses from the cell body to axon terminals, insulated by myelin sheaths

Myelin sheath

covers and insulates axon, increases the speed of electrical transmission, conducts electrical signals

Synapse

passing point of electrical impulses between axon terminals, passes info received from axon to other neurons, holds neurotransmitters that send chemical messages

Node of Ranvier

gaps in myelin sheaths, help axon increase conductivity by propagating electrical impulses

Action Potential

firing of electrical impulse through neuron

Resting Potential

resting neuron before and after firing electric impulse

Somatic nervous system

conscious and voluntary actions, relay of sensory and motor info from central nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

internal organs/glands, outside the realm of voluntary control, can be further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic

Sympathetic nervous system

Fight or Flight response, prepares the body for stressful situations

Parasympathetic nervous system

Returns body to a normal and daily routine after a stressful situation

Frontal lobe

emotional regulation, self-awareness, motivation, problem-solving, talking, movement, initiation

Parietal lobe

Sense of touch, spatial awareness, reading

Occipital lobe

Vision

Cerebellum

Balance, coordination, skilled motor activity

Brain stem

Breathing, heart rate, arousal and consciousness, sleep and wake cycles

Temporal lobe

Memory, hearing, understanding language, processing information

EEG

detects electrical activity in the brain using small, flat metal discs (electrodes) attached to the scalp, brain cells communicate via electrical impulses and their activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging test, uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body, gives different information about structures in the body than can be seen with an X-ray, ultrasound, or CAT scans

PET SCAN

positron emission tomography scan, an imaging test that helps reveal how tissues and organs are functioning, uses a radioactive drug (tracer) to show this activity

CAT SCAN

special X-ray tests, that produce cross-sectional images of the body using X-rays and a computer, also referred to as computerized axial tomography

Consciousness

A person's awareness about their surroundings at all times

Waking Consciousness

A state in which thoughts, feelings, emotions, and sensations are clear and organized

Altered State of Consciousness

A shift in the quality or pattern of mental state

Focused Attention

Response to stimuli (visual, auditory, or tactile)  Ex: head turning to stimuli

Sustained Attention

Vigilance over time (Working Memory) Ex. Attention in math class

Selective Attention

Ability to remove all distractions and focus on one thing. Ex: Focusing on the game and removing cheering from the background

Alternating Attention

Ability to switch between tasks Ex. Going from cooking to cleaning

Divided Attention

Ability to multitask and do 2 or more things at once

Microsleep

Very short periods of sleep lasting seconds

Sleep Deprivation

Loss or inability to sleep. Affects concentration and creates irritability.

REM

stage of sleep where eyes move rapidly under eyelids while the person is experiencing a dream

NREM

Any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM sleep

NREM Stage 1

Light sleep  

Hypnagogic images

vivid visual events 

Hypnic Jerks

knees, arms, legs jerking in sleep 

NREM Stage 2

Sleep spindles: bursts of brain activity during sleep lasting 1 or 2 seconds 

Insomnia

Trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, and getting quality sleep

REM behavior disorder

The mechanism that blocks voluntary muscle movements fails. This results in people thrashing around and acting out nightmares

Night terrors

Waking up from sleep in a fearful mood. Usually, children cry or scream in fear

Narcolepsy

uncontrollable daytime sleepiness

Sleep apnea

Where a person stops breathing for minutes in their sleep

Activation-Synthesis-Hypothesis

Dreams are created in higher centers of the cortex. Activated by the brain stem during rem sleep

Activation information mode model

Memories of the waking hour have an effect on dreams a person has

Manifest Content

Apparent meaning of the dream. The remembered storyline of the dream

Latent Content

Hidden meaning of the dream. Could be the unconscious thoughts and desires a person has

Psychoactive Drugs

Drugs that alter thinking, perception, and memories

Stimulants

Increase functioning in the nervous system

Stimulants

• Amphetamines

• Cocaine

• Nicotine

• Caffeine

Depressants

Decrease functions in the nervous system

Depressants

• Barbituates 

• Benzodiazepines

• Rohypnol 

• Alcohol 

Narcotics

Suppress sensations of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system endorphins

Narcotics

• Opium

• Morphine

• Heroin

Hallucinogens

Hallucinations, increased feelings of relaxation, and intoxication

Hallucinogens

• LSD

• PCP

• MDMA (ecstasy or x)

• Mescaline

• Psilocybin 

• Marijuana 

Hypnosis

State of consciousness where a person is susceptible to suggestion

Hypnotic Susceptibility

The degree to which a person is a good hypnosis subject

Tolerance

More and more of the drug is needed to achieve the same effect

Withdrawal

Physical symptoms including nausea, pain, crankiness, and high BP, resulting in a lack of the addictive drug in the system

Physical dependence

Body begins to require drug to function efficiently

Psychological dependence

The feeling that only the drug can give you happiness in your life

Latent learning

subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation

Habituation

when one does not respond as strongly or as often to an event following multiple exposures to it (ex. alarm)

Lateralization

a functional dominance of one hemisphere over the other, one is more responsible or entirely responsible for control of a function in comparison to the other

Observational learning

learning that occurs as a result of watching the behaviors of others

Unconditioned stimulus

stimulus that automatically triggers an involuntary response without learning a behavior

Conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus, that an organism learns to associate with an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned response

a reflexive involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

Shaping

the use of reinforcers to guide behavior to the acquisition of a desired complex behavior

Primary reinforcer

reinforcer that satisfies a biological need (ex. food, water, physical contact)

Secondary reinforcers

reinforcers that do not satisfy biological needs often gain their power through their association with primary reinforcers. (ex. money)

Positive reinforcement

reinforcers are added or presented following a target behavior, increasing the likelihood that it will be repeated again (ex. Getting money for chores)

Negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a target behavior, which increases the likelihood of it occurring again (ex. Doing chores to be rid of mom’s rant)

Positive Punishment

the addition of something unpleasant following an unwanted behavior, with the intention of decreasing that behavior (ex. Ticket for speeding)

Negative Punishment

the removal of something desirable following an unwanted behavior with the intention of decreasing that behavior (ex. License taken for speeding)

Stimulus discrimination

the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli sufficiently different from it (ex. Dog salivates to one stimulus but not another)