Psychology Unit 1 AOS 1

Define psychological development:

Changes in an individual’s cognitive, emotional and social skills throughout their lifespan

Define hereditary factors:

Influences that result from genetic information passed down from biological parents to offspring.

What is genetic disposition?

Increased likelihood to develop certain traits, including diseases

Define environmental factors:

External influences within an individual’s environment

Complete this statement:

Environmental factors influence whether genes ______ + how proteins _____

Expressed, operate

Provide examples of these different environments:

1. Emotional environment

2. Socioeconomic environment

3. Learning environment

4. Prenatal environment

5. Physical environment

1. Childhood experiences, attachment styles, parental-child relationships

2. Socioeconomic status, culture, religion/values, social groups

3. Education, job

4. Pregnancy nutrition, drug use, toxin exposure

5. Temperature/climate, exposure to disease

Between hereditary and environmental factors, what influences psychological development?

Caused by the interaction between hereditary and environmental factors

Define physical development:

Changes that occur in an individual body over their lifespan

What are twin studies used for?

Determining the influence of hereditary factors + environmental factors on development by examining developmental similarities and differences among identical and fraternal twins

Complete this table:

	Identical/ Monozygotic Twins	Fraternal/ Dizygotic Twins
Average % of genes shared

	Identical/ Monozygotic Twins	Fraternal/ Dizygotic Twins
Average % of genes shared	100%	50%

What is the biopsychosocial model?

Framework used to consider how the interaction between biological, psychological and social factors influence psychological development + mental wellbeing

Define biological factors and provide examples.

• Internal genetic + physiological factors that relate to the functioning of the body

E.g.

• Genetic predisposition

• Medications/substances

• Nutrition

• Sleep

• Immune system

• Hormones

Define psychological factors and provide examples.

• Mental processes such as cognitions, beliefs and attitudes that relate to the functioning of the brain + mind

E.g. 

• Beliefs/attitudes

• Emotions

• Personality

• Coping skills

• Self-esteem

• Memories + learning

Define social factors and provide examples.

• Interactions with others + external environment

E.g.

• Interpersonal relationships

• Attachment style

• Cultural norms

• Socioeconomic status

• Education

• Physical environment

What are risk factors? Provide some examples

• Increase the likelihood of developing maladaptive (unhelpful, dysfunctional) and atypical behaviour patterns or a mental disorder

E.g.

• Drugs & alcohol (biological)

• Low self esteem (psychological)

• Social isolation (social)

What are protective factors? Provide some examples

Reduce the likelihood of poor psychological development or a mental disorder 

E.g.

• Adequate sleep (biological)

• Intellectual stimulation (psychological)

• Emotional support (social)

Define mental wellbeing:

Individual's current psychological state, involving their ability to cope with the normal stresses of life, process information, contribute to society and regulate emotions.

What are mental health problems?

• Conditions that affect mood, thinking and behaviour

• Disruption in everyday functioning

• Not as long-lasting as mental disorders

• Mild or temporary impairment (a couple of weeks)

What are some characteristics of mental health problems?

• Increased/decreased sleep + appetite

• Loss of energy + motivation

• Difficulty concentrating

• Irritability

• Being withdrawn

What is a mental disorder?

• Long-lasting conditions that affect mood, thinking and behaviour (3-6 months)

• Consists of the 3 Ds (distress, dysfunction, deviance)

Define these terms:

1. Distress

2. Dysfunction

3. Deviance

1. Unpleasant/upsetting emotions

2. Affects ability to cope with everyday life + complete daily activities

3. Inconsistent with expectations of culture or society thoughts + behaviours (e.g. social withdrawing, lashing out)

What are some features of high levels of wellbeing? Provide some examples:

• High levels of functioning (productive, practising self-care, forms + maintains relationships)

• Resilience to life stressors (adapt/overcome/cope with stressful circumstances)

• High levels of social wellbeing (developing positive relationships, respecting others, working in a team)

• High levels of emotional wellbeing (expressing, controlling and identifying emotions)

Define emotional development:

Changes in how an individual experiences, interprets and expresses the full range of emotions and their ability to cope with them appropriately

Infancy (0-2 years)
Childhood (2 years – puberty)
Adolescence (puberty – 18 years)
Adulthood (18-65 years)
Old age (65+ years)

Infancy (0-2 years)	Express a variety of emotions  e.g. delight, fear, anger and disgust
Childhood (2 years – puberty)	Recognise their emotions in themselves + others  Understand how different situations can affect emotions
Adolescence (puberty – 18 years)	Experience extreme emotions  Identity development
Adulthood (18-65 years)	Develop intimate relationships  Mid-life crisis can occur --> dissatisfaction
Old age (65+ years)	More calmer  Managing emotions   Greater emotional wisdom

What is the Mary Ainsworth strange situation experiment?

Experiment to observe the attachment styles between a caregiver and a infant

Outline the different stages in the strange situation experiment:

What are the different types of attachment styles which Ainsworth had identified?

• Secure attachment (Type B)

• Insecure-resistant (Type A)

• Insecure-avoidant (Type C)

Complete this table:

Secure attachment (Type B)	65-70%
Insecure-resistant attachment (Type A)	10-15%
Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type C)	15-25%

Secure attachment (Type B)	65-70%	Play comfortably with caregiver present    Quite upset when caregiver leaves + not easily comforted by stranger    Infants quickly calm down when caregiver returns	Caregiver responds to infants appropriately and consistently    Caregiver is always available + responsive
Insecure-resistant attachment (Type A)	10-15%	Infants seem anxious while playing + clingy    Become angry + intense distress  when caregiver leaves     Approach mother + not comforted after their return + reject contact	Caregiver is not consistent in responding to the infant's needs
Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type C)	15-25%	Seek little contact + no interest with caregiver while playing    Not distressed when caregiver leaves    After reuniting, they are distant + avoid contact with their caregiver	Caregiver is inconsistent in responding to infant needs    --> Very caring sometimes    --> Sometimes dismissive

What is the other attachment style identified by Main and Solomon in 1990? Describe it.

• Insecure-disorganised attachment

• Odd/ambivalent behaviour towards caregiver (e.g. running to them then pulling away, curling in a ball and hitting caregiver) 

• Seek comfort but feel fear with caregiver 

• Seen in individuals who have been physically, verbally or sexually abused 

• Risk factor for mental health disorders

Define social development:

Changes in an individual's ability to interact with other people and function as a member of society

Complete this table:

Infancy (0-2 years)
Childhood (2 years – puberty)
Adolescence (Puberty – 18 years)
Adulthood (18-65 years)
Old age (65+ years)

Infancy (0-2 years)	Begin to trust others  Give and take relationships
Childhood (2 years – puberty)	Develop friendships  More social independence from parents
Adolescence (Puberty – 18 years)	Friendship + peer relationships  Romantic + sexual relationships
Adulthood (18-65 years)	Long-term relationships  Concern for future generations --> contribute to the world more
Old age (65+ years)	Socially wise  Greater sense of isolation

Define cognitive development:

Changes in an individual's mental abilities, including their thinking, learning, imagination, perception, reasoning, decision-making, memory and problem-solving skills

Infancy (0-2 years)
Childhood (2 years – puberty)
Adolescence (Puberty – 18 years)
Adulthood (18-65 years)
Old age (65+ years)

Infancy (0-2 years)	Using senses  Recognition  Respond to certain actions  Imitation  Understand simple words
Childhood (2 years – puberty)	Mental imagery  Memory  Increased attention span  Develop logic + problem-solving
Adolescence (Puberty – 18 years)	Increased independence  Abstract thinking  Metacognition (thinking about thinking)
Adulthood (18-65 years)	Older adults' cognitive processing speed slows down as well as attention span  Cognition reaches peak around age 35  Practical problem-solving skills increase
Old age (65+ years)	Cognitive processing, problem-solving and attention speed slow down  Practical problem-solving skills increase

Compare assimilation and accommodation:

• Assimilation: Cognitive process that involves taking a new concept and fitting it into a schema (pre-existing idea that helps organise new information) 

• Accommodation: Cognitive process that involves changing an existing idea or creating a new one for the new concept to fit into

What are the different stages of cognitive development according to Jean Piaget’s theory? List the different cognitive accomplishments but do not describe each.

Sensorimotor Stage (0 - 2 years)

• Object permanence

• Goal-directed behaviour

Pre-operational Stage (2 - 7 years)

• Symbolic thinking

• Animism

• Egocentrism

• Transformation

Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years)

• Reversibility

• Conservation (conservation of volume, conservation of mass, conservation of number, conservation of length)

• Classification

Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)

• Hypothetical;-deductive reasoning

• Abstract thinking

Define these cognitive accomplishments and list examples:

1. Object permanence

2. Goal-directed behaviour

3. Symbolic thinking

4. Animism

5. Egocentrism

6. Transformation

7. Reversibility

8. Conservation

9. Classification

10. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

11. Abstract thinking

1. Objects still exist when out of sight (Peek a boo)

2. Plan and carry out actions with a purpose (Crawling to get a toy under a table)

3. Use of symbols to represent real objects (box becomes tv)

4. Belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions (stars twinkle because their happy)

5. Inability to understand others’ point of view (cannot recognise blocking your view)

6. Understanding that something can change state/structure (water in liquid and ice)

7. Understanding that actions can be undone or reversed (Re-inflating a deflated ball)

8. Understanding that certain qualities of an object remain the same even if appearance changes

9. Ability to sort objects into groups based on features

10. Developing a hypothesis/prediction based on logic and reason 

11. Understanding concepts without having to observe, visualise, experience or manipulate it (learning that objects are made out of atoms)

What are the strengths of Piaget’s theory?

• Inspired multiple studies + theories --> further improved understanding of children cognitive development 

• Impact on educational practice as it shaped the education system + improved educational outcomes

What are the weaknesses of Piaget’s theory?

• Underestimated children's cognitive development (e.g. object permanence earlier understood) 

• Underestimated the influence of cultural factors on development + culturally biased 

• Biased as based off his own children/small sample size 

• Underestimated the role of relationships + social influence

Define sensitive periods and provide examples:

Period where an organism is most able to acquire a particular skill or characteristic 

• Language

• Music

Why are organisms able to learn + develop a specific skill best during this time?

Due to heightened neuroplasticity (brain's ability to change/adapt due to experience)

After a sensitive period, can a skill still be learnt?

• Yes

• Learning will take longer + require more effort

Define critical periods and provide examples:

Fixed, narrow time in development when an organism is able to acquire a specific skill or characteristic 

• Konrad Lorenz geese experiment → imprinting

After a critical period, can a skill still be learnt?

It generally can't be learnt later

Define typical development and typical behaviours:

• When behaviours, skills or abilities fall within the expected range of development/ progress at a similar pace compared to peers of the same age 

• Patterns of behaviour that are expected of an individual/ conform to standards of what is acceptable for a given situation (influenced by culture + societal norms)

Define atypical development and atypical behaviours. List some examples of atypical behaviours

• When behaviours, skills or abilities fall outside the expected range of development/ progress at a different pace compared to peers of the same age 

• Patterns of behaviour that are not expected of an individual/ deviate from the norm and can be harmful for the individual and those around them 

• Examples: Excessive violence, social withdrawal, self-harm, delay in speech

List the criterions for categorising typical and atypical behaviour:

• Cultural perspectives 

• Societal norms 

• Statistical rarity 

• Personal distress  

• Maladaptive behaviour

Describe the criterion: cultural perspectives. List some limitations:

Criterion for determining whether a behaviour is typical or atypical, by accounting for cultural norms or societal standards 

 

Limitations: 

• Differences between countries/culture - no universal agreement + conflicting ideas on what should be considered as acceptable or typical behaviour

Describe the criterion: social norms. List some limitations:

Shared standards/social beliefs on what is acceptable or typical behaviour 

 

Limitations: 

• Differences between individuals and groups 

• Social norms change over time with changes in society

Describe the criterion: statistical rarity. List some limitations:

Criterion that views atypical behaviours as deviating significantly from the statistical average 

 

Limitations: 

• Many behaviours/characteristics are considered as atypical despite being common/frequent (e.g. anxiety disorder) 

Describe the criterion: personal distress. List some limitations:

State in which an individual experiences upsetting emotions such as sadness, anxiety or feeling overwhelmed  

 

Limitations: 

• Some behaviours, despite being maladaptive, personal distress doesn’t occur 

• Personal distress alone cannot describe behaviour as atypical (e.g. losing a loved one will cause personal distress but it may not be atypical) 

Describe the criterion: maladaptive behaviour. List some limitations:

Behaviour that is unhelpful, dysfunctional and non-productive, and interferes with an individual's ability to adjust to their environment appropriately

Limitations: 

• How maladaptive a behaviour may be is subjective and therefore hard to quantify 

• Not all atypical behaviours are maladaptive and vice versa (e.g. having an extremely high IQ can be adaptive) (e.g. having a fear of public speaking is not uncommon) 

Compare normality and abnormality:

Normality: Patterns of behaviour that are typical and expected, or that conform to standards of what is acceptable 

Abnormality: Behaviours that are unusual, atypical and out of the ordinary 

Define these terms:

1. Neurotypicality

2. Neurotypical

Neurotypicality: Typical brain functioning, processing and behaviours 

Neurotypical: Individual whose neurological development/functioning is within the typical range 

Define these terms:

1. Neurodiversity

2. Neurodiverse

1. Idea that every human has a unique nervous system with a different combination of abilities and needs 

2. Functioning outside the typical range of neurological development

Adaptive. Give an example.

Emotions, behaviours and cognitions that enable individuals adapt to their environment appropriately and cope effectively 

• Allows individuals to effectively manage and achieve daily tasks 

e.g. studying for an upcoming assessment that is causing stress

Maladaptive. Give an example.

Emotions, behaviours and cognitions that interfere with an individual's ability to adjust to their environment appropriately and effectively 

 

e.g. avoid studying for an upcoming assessment that is causing stress

Define neurodivergent:

Refer to individuals whose brains function differently to others 

List some neurodiverse conditions:

Define autism spectrum disorder and list some symptoms.

Neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by symptoms evident from early childhood. 

 

• Poor communication and social skills 

• Lacks the ability to understand emotional and social cues  

• Poor non-verbal communication skills (e.g. lack of eye contact, wrong gestures, reduced facial expressions) 

• Struggles with forming and maintaining relationships 

What is theory of mind? When does it typically develop and how does it relate to autism?

Cognitive ability that allows individuals to understand that others have mental states

• Several studies have established that individuals with autism spectrum disorder have an impaired theory of mind 

• Theory of Mind develops around age 4 and is crucial for social communication (understanding other perspectives) 

How would neurotypical children answer the first question (theory of mind)? And how would autistic children?

• If the child points to the basket, they show an understanding that Sally doesn’t know the marble was moved and hence are able to understand Sally's perspective 

• If the child points to the box, they fail the task, and hence show that they cannot distinguish between their own knowledge and Sally perspective 

 

• 85% of neurotypical children + down syndrome answered the belief question correctly 

• Only 20% of autistic children did; 80% pointed to the actual location (box)

Define executive function. Relate it to autism

Cognitive process that helps individuals set goals, organise and plan, focus their attention and get tasks done 

• It involves complex cognitive processes like working memory, problem-solving and flexible thinking 

 

• Autistic individuals have executive dysfunction 

• They tend to score lower on tests of short-term memory, mental processing speed and prioritise accuracy over speed

Define central coherence. Relate it to autism.

Ability to derive overall meaning from a mass of details 

 

e.g. A bunch of trees 

Strong central coherence: forest 

Weak central coherence: large number of individual trees 

 

• People with autism have weak central coherence --> focus on details rather than the overall idea 

Define attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD):

Neurodevelopmental disorder 

• Inattention (difficulty concentrating, forgetting instructions) 

• Distractibility 

• Hyperactivity 

• Impulsivity (talking over the top of others)

Relate executive function with ADHD:

Those with ADHD have deficits in executive function  

 

They struggle with: 

• Organising, prioritising and starting tasks 

• Focusing 

• Regulating alertness, effort and speed 

• Using working memory

What is working memory? Relate it with ADHD individuals:

ADHD individuals have dysfunctions in their working memory (memory that allows individuals to hold information) 

 

• They struggle with dealing with visual and spatial information (e.g. remembering where they put objects) 

• Processing auditory information (e.g. following spoken instructions)

What is arousal/alertness? Relate it with ADHD individuals:

Ability to stay vigilant (watchful of danger or difficulties) and maintain focus 

 

ADHD children have low alertness 

• They are likely to respond quickly + carelessly and show impulsive behaviour

Relate time execution with ADHD:

Individuals with ADHD show variations in how they estimate time 

• They tend to overestimate short time intervals (they feel like more time has passed than actually has)

Compare psychologists with psychiatrists:

Psychologist	Similarities	Psychiatrist
At least six years of education + training in psychology  (no medical degree)	Can assess mental health, diagnose and provide management plans/treatment for mental disorders with associated behaviours	Approximately 12 years of education + training (medical degree (4-6 yrs) + hospital training (1 yr) + specialist training in psychiatry (5 yrs)
Cannot prescribe medications + perform medical procedures	Specialise in mental wellbeing	Prescribe medications + perform medical procedures + admit a person to hospital if required
Tend to provide counselling or psychotherapy → aim to change thinking patterns + behaviours to improve mental wellbeing		Focuses more on medical or biological causes of mental disorders  (chemical imbalances in the brain or hormonal issues)
Establish a safe place for a client to express, explore and process their thoughts, feelings and behaviours to make them feel supported
Assist children with learning, behaviour, emotions or mental health --> learning difficulties, neurodevelopmental disorders, defiant or difficult behaviours, social skills development through therapy