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ecdyzoa
a clade of phyla where an external cuticle is moulted and use internal fertilization to reproduce. Bilaterally symmetric protostomes
worm-like
one of the basic ecdyzoan body plans. Anterior nerve ring that wraps around the oesophagus, terminal mouth normally found on an extrovert; e.g. Caenorhabditis elegans
insect-like
the other ecdyzoan basic body plan with a segmented body and jointed appendages. e.g. Drosophila melanogaster
ecdysis
the process of moulting an external cuticle; comes from a Greek word meaning to put off or strip off. Certain hormones are used to initiate moulting
collagen-based
type of exoskeleton that are the point of muscle attachment for locomotion and protection for worm-like body plans; e.g. nematodes
flexible chitin
form of exoskeleton that is mainly made of chitin that is soft, flexible, contains an elastic hydrostatic jacket, can withstand high internal pressure, and assists with locomotion; e.g. larval insects
armoured chitin
form of exoskeleton that is chitin plus crosslinked proteins and/or biomineralisation, form plates (sclerites), for articulation, and enables flight and locomotion; e.g. adult anthropods
Scalidophora
clade of 3 minor ecdyzoan phyla: Loricifera, Kinorhyncha, and Priapulida. Marine invertebrates, moulted chitinious cuticle, relatively simple body and brain, retractable mouth part (introvert) with two rings of introvert retracts, and have scalids (spines, especially around introvert) for locomotion
Phylum Loricifera
“brush heads,” around 100 species that live in marine gravel that are dioecious and have scalids, small to microscopic, head, neck, and trunk, head retracts into neck, surrounded by the lorica. Three species have no mitochondria and don’t require oxygen to live
Phylum Kinorhyncha
350+ described species, less than 1 mm long, marine, contain 13 body parts: 11 “spines,” head, and neck, curved spines (scalids), dioecious, and moves by using trunk muscles to retract and extend the introvert
Phylum Priapulida
2 species, known as penis worms, cylindrical bodies can grow up to 40 cm, retractable introvert, trunk, caudal appendage(s), not metameric, dioecious, and pseudocoelomate with coelomocytes (hemethryin)
Nematoidea
clade that contains phylum nematoda and phylum nematomorpha, which have worm-like body plans. Moult a collagenous cuticle secreted by the epidermis with no microvilli, unique cleavage, protostomes with bilateral symmetry, longitudinal muscles and no circular muscles, hydrostatic skeleton, pseudocoelomates, no segmentation, and round cross-sections
Phylum Nematoda
free-living or parasitic lifestyles, live everywhere, around 500,000 species, most abundant animals on the planet, usually under 5 cm, often a lot smaller, especially for free-living species, sensilla (sensory organ) and amphids (chemosensory organs), and a true digestive system (gut)
Phylum Nematomorpha
parasitic larvae (on arthropods), free-living adults, 5 marine species, 320 freshwater species, 5 to 200 cm long, adults have no gut, and no sensilla or amphids
Order Nectonematoidia
5 marine nematomorph species that infect crustaceans
Order Gordioda
320 freshwater nematomorph species that mostly infect orthopteran insects
Panarthropoda
clade of 3 ecdyzoan phyla that includes Tardigrada, Onychophora, and Arthropoda. Defining characteristics include a segmented body plan, paired, ventrolateral walking appendages, and an open circulatory system, haemocoel/haemolymph and heart (but not for Tardigrada), chitinious cuticle (modified in each phyla) and the reduction of the coelom
lobopods
non-articulated clawed appendages found in the phyla Tardigrada and Onychophora
Phylum Onychophora
commonly known as velvet worms. external segmentation suppressed, body tubercles and scales, unique oral papillae, lobelike legs with pads and claws, slime glands, trachael system. 2 families, each found in a different hemisphere. Nocturnal, ambush predators, and the only animal phylum where all extant members are terrestrial
slime papillae
glands in Onychophora where they shoot slime to immobilize prey and defend themselves; on their third segment
spiracle/stigma control
insects have this and have values to close their spiracles while onychophorans can’t close their spiracles, so they lack this feature
Phylum Tardigrada
“slow walkers,” commonly known as water bears. 1500 described species, commonly found in water film in moss and lichen, found in mountains to deep water habitats, almost undestructable, intermediate trunk region lost, oxygen via diffusion through cuticle, 4 layered cuticle, buccal stylets, and can do cryptobiosis
Malpighian tubes
serve the same function as the kidneys
cryptobiosis
the whole process tardigrades undergo when responding to extreme conditions. There are many different modes that tardigrades can go into as they become inactive
Phylum Arthropoda
bilaterally symmetric protostomes that are ecdyzoans. Contains 4 extant subphyla: Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Crustacea, and Hexapoda and is the largest animal phylum (1 million species, 80% of all animals). Features not accounting for secondary losses, include compound eyes, 1 pair of antennae, and chitinous exoskeleton with articulated appendages. Occupy marine, freshwater, land, and the air
moulting in arthropods
the exoskeleton is made of chitin and proteins (+ calcium carbonate in crustaceans) and functions in protecting them from predators, desiccation, and damage. This process of shedding the exoskeleton is necessary for their growth. They stop feeding, take on air/water to grow bigger and split the old exoskeleton, with the epidermis creating a new one. This process is more frequent at earlier stages of growth
tagmatization
key feature of arthropods; a segmented body being divided into functional regions
anterior segments
bear eyes, antennae, and mouthparts; often fused, so that appendages can work together
middle segments
often bear appendages for walking, flying, and swimming
telson
the last segment in arthropods and never carries any appendages
Hox genes
play a key role in determining segment identity during arthropod development. By shifting their expression, structures can be reused or modified; e.g. wings evolved from a modified “leg” program
antennae
used for sensing touch, sound, and smell in arthropods
arthropod mouthparts
used for feeding; e.g. mandibles, chelicerae
gills
respiration method commonly found in aquatic arthropods like crustaceans
trachael system
respiration method in terrestrial insects; air enters through the spiracles and travels in tubes (tracheae) directly to tissues
book lungs
respiration method in arachnids; stacked plates increase surface area for gas exchange
ocellus(i)
simple eye with a single lens, detects light intensity and movement, and does not form detailed images
compound eye
made up of many small units called ommatidia, wide field of view/motion detection, and are pixelated
Subphylum Trilobita
extinct group of marine arthropods (270 to 521 mya), 3-lobed and segmented body, 20,000 species, hard exoskeleton, predators, scavengers, filter feeders, compound eyes
Subphylum Myriapoda
“a myriad of feet,” two tagmata: head and trunk, paired appendages, legs are all uniramous, one pair of antennae on head, 4 classes: chilopoda, diplopoda, pauropoda, and symphyla
Class Chilopoda
centipedes, flattened body, all are venomous, inject venom through forcipules (modified legs instead of fangs), ocelli, spiracles on side/top of body, 3,000 species, size varies, up to 200 pairs of legs
Class Diplopoda
millipedes, 12,000 species, size varies, up to 1,300 pairs of legs, 2 pairs of legs per segment, ocelli, spiracles on the underside of the body
Class Symphyla
garden centipedes, 200 species, 2-10 mm long, 6 to 12 pairs of legs, found in soil, feed on plant roots and decaying organic material
Class Pauropoda
branced “biramous” antennae, soil-dwelling, feed on fungi and decomposing matter, small, so have no respiratory systems, 700 species, 0.5 - 2 mm long, 6-12 pairs of legs
Subphylum Chelicerata
includes spiders, scorpions, ticks, and horseshoe crabs. Exoskeleton made of chitin, open circulatory system with haemolymph, respiration with book lungs, book gills, or tracheae, primarily terrestrial, some marine. Tagmata include the cephalothorax and abdomen
chelicerae
chelicerates have one pair of these mouthparts for feeding, which are often fang or pincer-like
pedipalps
a pair of appendages present in chelicerates with a sensory, prey handling, or reproductive role
Class Merostomata
horseshoe crabs and has 4 extant species, marine, bottom dwellers, have book gills, blue blood used for biomedical testing, male has one different claw to grab females for mating
Class Arachnida
spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites
Order Araneae
spiders, about 50,000 species, most have 8 simple eyes, breathe using book lungs or tracheal system or both, cephalothorax has 4 pairs of walking legs, 1 pair of pedipalps, and 1 pair of chelicerae ending in fangs, often venomous. The abdomen contains 1 to 4 pairs of spinnerets that produce silk. The cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a thin pedicel
Order Scopionidae
scorpions. Most have 2-6 ocelli, breathe using book lungs. The cephalothorax contains 4 pairs of walking legs with sensory setae, 1 pair of chelicerae for tearing prey, and 1 pair of large pedipalps modified into pincers. The abdomen is divided into broad preabdomen and narrow postabdomen (tail), tail ends in a telson with a venomous stinger, and there is no pedicel
Order Acari
ticks and mites, most have no eyes or 1 or 2 pairs of simple eyes, breathe using tracheae, cutaneous respiration, or stigmata and tracheal system (no book lungs), body is unsegmented (cephalothorax and abdomen are fused), 1 pair of pedipalps, 1 pair of chelicerae, 4 pairs of walking legs with sensory setae, mouthparts from a captilum, no spinnerets, parasitic, pests
ovipositor
hanging out from the insect abdomen in females and is used to position for egg laying
stinger
a modified ovipositor in Aculeates (wasps, bees, and ants) and is used to paralyze or subdue prey
mimicry
when animal mimics another, often for the purpose of fooling potential predators; e.g. many flies mimic bees to have the benefits of predators staying away from them
Subphylum Crustacea
biramous second pair of antennae, 2 pairs of maxillae, Nauplius larvae, mainly free-living aquatic, but there are some terrestrial, parasitic, or even sessile species, and have diverse body plans
uniramous
unbranched arthropod limbs, found in myriapods, hexapods, chelicerates
biramous
branched arthropod limbs found in crustacea, trilobites
Nauplius larvae
earliest larval stage of many crustaceans, 3 pairs of appendages, no feeding structures, may be followed by other larval stages, common in copepods, barnacles, krill, and many other malocostracans
Class Branchiopoda
fairy shrimps, brine shrimps (artemia), and water fleas (daphnia); gills on their legs; small; carapace in some; compound eyes; important role in food webs because they are prey for a lot of animals
Class Maxillopoda
barnacles, copepods, and others, mostly parasitic; small, reduced abdomen with no appendages
Class Ostracoda
“shell” or “tile.” Seed shrimp; flattened laterally, protected by bivalve-like shell; locomotion by antennae and limbs; only 5-7 pairs of appendages; found in all sorts of moist environments
Class Malacostraca
largest and most diverse class of crustaceans with 40,000 species. Has 16 orders, but we’ll only focus on 4: Isopoda, Amphipoda, Euphausiacea, and Decapoda). Eight thoracic and six abdominal segments, abdominal appendages
Order Isopoda
diverse group, dorsoventrally flattened, no carapace, 7 pairs of legs that are uniform, gills or gill-like structures for breathing, important ecological role
Order Amphipoda
laterally compressed body, no carapace, diverse limb types, mostly marine, but freshwater and terrestrial species exist, diverse diet, often curl in C-shape when disturbed, are dentrivores (an important ecological role)
Order Euphausiacea
krill, which are shrimp-like crustaceans. Mostly marine and open ocean, gills on swimming legs, foundation of most marine food webs, can form massive swarms
Order Decapoda
largest order of Class Malacostraca, which contains crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, and prawns. Five pairs of legs — hence the name. Marine, freshwater, terrestrial; well-developed carapace covering head and thorax; ecological and economic importance
Subphylum Hexapoda
defining characteristics include a unique tracheal system, 6 legs, and the 3 tagmata include the head, thorax, and abdomen
Class Entognatha
bases of mouthparts located inside head capsule; small, wingless; e.g. springtails
Class Insecta
the bases of mouthparts are visible. Chitinous cuticle; 3 pairs of uniramous legs; 1 pair of antennae; compound eye; usually 2 pairs of wings (but there are exceptions)
Paleoptera
division of insects meaning “old wings.” They cannot fold their wings over the abdomen; e.g. mayflies, dragonflies
Neoptera
division of insects meaning “new wings.” Can fold their wings; majority of flying insects
Holometabola
88% of insects; undergo complete metamorphosis; e.g. ants, bees, beetles, flies, fleas, butterfiles and moths, caddisflies…
direct muscles
in insect thorax, attached to wing bases, precise flying
indirect muscles
attached to an insect thorax, faster wing beats
insect mouthparts
specialised for diets and feeding behaviour. e.g. chewing, piercing-sucking, siphoning, sponging, cutting-sponging
air sacs
some insects have them as part of the tubular network that is their tracheal system
hemolymph
fluid in the open circulatory system that carries waste and nutrients in insects
ostia
holes in which hemolymph enters the heart through in insects
aorta
the tubular part of the insect open circulatory system in which hemolymph exits into the body cavity to flow freely
ventral nerve cord
runs along the length of the insect body and is located around the front of their bodies or at their “bellies.” Transmits nerve signals to ganglia throughout the body
subesophageal ganglion
located below the oesophagus in the insect central nervous system; controls the mouthparts, salivary glands, and certain neck muscles
segmental ganglia
the “brains” of each segment of an insect body are the functional units of the insect central nervous system
peripheral nervous system
nerves branching from central nervous system to muscles and organs in insects
visceral nervous system
regulates internal organs in insects
spermatophores
depositable clusters of sperms some male insects do to help reproduce
haplodiploidy
in bees, ants, and wasps. The queen’s haploid egg cell itself results in a drone son. The queen’s egg combined with a drone’s sperm results in a diploid worker daughter
complete metamorphosis
larvae look very different from adults
incomplete metamorphosis
the babies look like the adults, but are smaller
insect social behaviour
exists on a spectrum from solitary (most insects) to eusocial (a few lineages)
eusocial
defined by cooperative brood care, overlapping generations, and reproductive division of labor (castes) e.g. ants, termites, bees, and some wasps
sex
classification of living organisms based on their reproductive anatomy
gender
human societal construct that refers to roles, behaviour, activity, and identities
promiscuity
all members of a species mate with each other
polygyny
several females mate with one male
polyandry
several males mate with one female
monogamy
one male and one female mate with each other
intersexual selection
one sex, often the female, selects an opposite sex mate based on certain qualities
intrasexual selection
same-sex individuals compete for access to mates
simultaneous hermaphrodism
contain both male and female gonads and both pairs of gonads are functional