ZOOL221 Ecdyzoa and Animal Reproduction

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103 Terms

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ecdyzoa

a clade of phyla where an external cuticle is moulted and use internal fertilization to reproduce. Bilaterally symmetric protostomes

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worm-like

one of the basic ecdyzoan body plans. Anterior nerve ring that wraps around the oesophagus, terminal mouth normally found on an extrovert; e.g. Caenorhabditis elegans

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insect-like

the other ecdyzoan basic body plan with a segmented body and jointed appendages. e.g. Drosophila melanogaster

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ecdysis

the process of moulting an external cuticle; comes from a Greek word meaning to put off or strip off. Certain hormones are used to initiate moulting

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collagen-based

type of exoskeleton that are the point of muscle attachment for locomotion and protection for worm-like body plans; e.g. nematodes

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flexible chitin

form of exoskeleton that is mainly made of chitin that is soft, flexible, contains an elastic hydrostatic jacket, can withstand high internal pressure, and assists with locomotion; e.g. larval insects

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armoured chitin

form of exoskeleton that is chitin plus crosslinked proteins and/or biomineralisation, form plates (sclerites), for articulation, and enables flight and locomotion; e.g. adult anthropods

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Scalidophora

clade of 3 minor ecdyzoan phyla: Loricifera, Kinorhyncha, and Priapulida. Marine invertebrates, moulted chitinious cuticle, relatively simple body and brain, retractable mouth part (introvert) with two rings of introvert retracts, and have scalids (spines, especially around introvert) for locomotion

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Phylum Loricifera

“brush heads,” around 100 species that live in marine gravel that are dioecious and have scalids, small to microscopic, head, neck, and trunk, head retracts into neck, surrounded by the lorica. Three species have no mitochondria and don’t require oxygen to live

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Phylum Kinorhyncha

350+ described species, less than 1 mm long, marine, contain 13 body parts: 11 “spines,” head, and neck, curved spines (scalids), dioecious, and moves by using trunk muscles to retract and extend the introvert

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Phylum Priapulida

2 species, known as penis worms, cylindrical bodies can grow up to 40 cm, retractable introvert, trunk, caudal appendage(s), not metameric, dioecious, and pseudocoelomate with coelomocytes (hemethryin)

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Nematoidea

clade that contains phylum nematoda and phylum nematomorpha, which have worm-like body plans. Moult a collagenous cuticle secreted by the epidermis with no microvilli, unique cleavage, protostomes with bilateral symmetry, longitudinal muscles and no circular muscles, hydrostatic skeleton, pseudocoelomates, no segmentation, and round cross-sections

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Phylum Nematoda

free-living or parasitic lifestyles, live everywhere, around 500,000 species, most abundant animals on the planet, usually under 5 cm, often a lot smaller, especially for free-living species, sensilla (sensory organ) and amphids (chemosensory organs), and a true digestive system (gut)

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Phylum Nematomorpha

parasitic larvae (on arthropods), free-living adults, 5 marine species, 320 freshwater species, 5 to 200 cm long, adults have no gut, and no sensilla or amphids

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Order Nectonematoidia

5 marine nematomorph species that infect crustaceans

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Order Gordioda

320 freshwater nematomorph species that mostly infect orthopteran insects

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Panarthropoda

clade of 3 ecdyzoan phyla that includes Tardigrada, Onychophora, and Arthropoda. Defining characteristics include a segmented body plan, paired, ventrolateral walking appendages, and an open circulatory system, haemocoel/haemolymph and heart (but not for Tardigrada), chitinious cuticle (modified in each phyla) and the reduction of the coelom

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lobopods

non-articulated clawed appendages found in the phyla Tardigrada and Onychophora

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Phylum Onychophora

commonly known as velvet worms. external segmentation suppressed, body tubercles and scales, unique oral papillae, lobelike legs with pads and claws, slime glands, trachael system. 2 families, each found in a different hemisphere. Nocturnal, ambush predators, and the only animal phylum where all extant members are terrestrial

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slime papillae

glands in Onychophora where they shoot slime to immobilize prey and defend themselves; on their third segment

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spiracle/stigma control

insects have this and have values to close their spiracles while onychophorans can’t close their spiracles, so they lack this feature

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Phylum Tardigrada

“slow walkers,” commonly known as water bears. 1500 described species, commonly found in water film in moss and lichen, found in mountains to deep water habitats, almost undestructable, intermediate trunk region lost, oxygen via diffusion through cuticle, 4 layered cuticle, buccal stylets, and can do cryptobiosis

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Malpighian tubes

serve the same function as the kidneys

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cryptobiosis

the whole process tardigrades undergo when responding to extreme conditions. There are many different modes that tardigrades can go into as they become inactive

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Phylum Arthropoda

bilaterally symmetric protostomes that are ecdyzoans. Contains 4 extant subphyla: Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Crustacea, and Hexapoda and is the largest animal phylum (1 million species, 80% of all animals). Features not accounting for secondary losses, include compound eyes, 1 pair of antennae, and chitinous exoskeleton with articulated appendages. Occupy marine, freshwater, land, and the air

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moulting in arthropods

the exoskeleton is made of chitin and proteins (+ calcium carbonate in crustaceans) and functions in protecting them from predators, desiccation, and damage. This process of shedding the exoskeleton is necessary for their growth. They stop feeding, take on air/water to grow bigger and split the old exoskeleton, with the epidermis creating a new one. This process is more frequent at earlier stages of growth

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tagmatization

key feature of arthropods; a segmented body being divided into functional regions

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anterior segments

bear eyes, antennae, and mouthparts; often fused, so that appendages can work together

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middle segments

often bear appendages for walking, flying, and swimming

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telson

the last segment in arthropods and never carries any appendages

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Hox genes

play a key role in determining segment identity during arthropod development. By shifting their expression, structures can be reused or modified; e.g. wings evolved from a modified “leg” program

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antennae

used for sensing touch, sound, and smell in arthropods

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arthropod mouthparts

used for feeding; e.g. mandibles, chelicerae

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gills

respiration method commonly found in aquatic arthropods like crustaceans

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trachael system

respiration method in terrestrial insects; air enters through the spiracles and travels in tubes (tracheae) directly to tissues

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book lungs

respiration method in arachnids; stacked plates increase surface area for gas exchange

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ocellus(i)

simple eye with a single lens, detects light intensity and movement, and does not form detailed images

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compound eye

made up of many small units called ommatidia, wide field of view/motion detection, and are pixelated

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Subphylum Trilobita

extinct group of marine arthropods (270 to 521 mya), 3-lobed and segmented body, 20,000 species, hard exoskeleton, predators, scavengers, filter feeders, compound eyes

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Subphylum Myriapoda

“a myriad of feet,” two tagmata: head and trunk, paired appendages, legs are all uniramous, one pair of antennae on head, 4 classes: chilopoda, diplopoda, pauropoda, and symphyla

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Class Chilopoda

centipedes, flattened body, all are venomous, inject venom through forcipules (modified legs instead of fangs), ocelli, spiracles on side/top of body, 3,000 species, size varies, up to 200 pairs of legs

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Class Diplopoda

millipedes, 12,000 species, size varies, up to 1,300 pairs of legs, 2 pairs of legs per segment, ocelli, spiracles on the underside of the body

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Class Symphyla

garden centipedes, 200 species, 2-10 mm long, 6 to 12 pairs of legs, found in soil, feed on plant roots and decaying organic material

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Class Pauropoda

branced “biramous” antennae, soil-dwelling, feed on fungi and decomposing matter, small, so have no respiratory systems, 700 species, 0.5 - 2 mm long, 6-12 pairs of legs

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Subphylum Chelicerata

includes spiders, scorpions, ticks, and horseshoe crabs. Exoskeleton made of chitin, open circulatory system with haemolymph, respiration with book lungs, book gills, or tracheae, primarily terrestrial, some marine. Tagmata include the cephalothorax and abdomen

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chelicerae

chelicerates have one pair of these mouthparts for feeding, which are often fang or pincer-like

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pedipalps

a pair of appendages present in chelicerates with a sensory, prey handling, or reproductive role

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Class Merostomata

horseshoe crabs and has 4 extant species, marine, bottom dwellers, have book gills, blue blood used for biomedical testing, male has one different claw to grab females for mating

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Class Arachnida

spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites

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Order Araneae

spiders, about 50,000 species, most have 8 simple eyes, breathe using book lungs or tracheal system or both, cephalothorax has 4 pairs of walking legs, 1 pair of pedipalps, and 1 pair of chelicerae ending in fangs, often venomous. The abdomen contains 1 to 4 pairs of spinnerets that produce silk. The cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a thin pedicel

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Order Scopionidae

scorpions. Most have 2-6 ocelli, breathe using book lungs. The cephalothorax contains 4 pairs of walking legs with sensory setae, 1 pair of chelicerae for tearing prey, and 1 pair of large pedipalps modified into pincers. The abdomen is divided into broad preabdomen and narrow postabdomen (tail), tail ends in a telson with a venomous stinger, and there is no pedicel

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Order Acari

ticks and mites, most have no eyes or 1 or 2 pairs of simple eyes, breathe using tracheae, cutaneous respiration, or stigmata and tracheal system (no book lungs), body is unsegmented (cephalothorax and abdomen are fused), 1 pair of pedipalps, 1 pair of chelicerae, 4 pairs of walking legs with sensory setae, mouthparts from a captilum, no spinnerets, parasitic, pests

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ovipositor

hanging out from the insect abdomen in females and is used to position for egg laying

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stinger

a modified ovipositor in Aculeates (wasps, bees, and ants) and is used to paralyze or subdue prey

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mimicry

when animal mimics another, often for the purpose of fooling potential predators; e.g. many flies mimic bees to have the benefits of predators staying away from them

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Subphylum Crustacea

biramous second pair of antennae, 2 pairs of maxillae, Nauplius larvae, mainly free-living aquatic, but there are some terrestrial, parasitic, or even sessile species, and have diverse body plans

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uniramous

unbranched arthropod limbs, found in myriapods, hexapods, chelicerates

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biramous

branched arthropod limbs found in crustacea, trilobites

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Nauplius larvae

earliest larval stage of many crustaceans, 3 pairs of appendages, no feeding structures, may be followed by other larval stages, common in copepods, barnacles, krill, and many other malocostracans

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Class Branchiopoda

fairy shrimps, brine shrimps (artemia), and water fleas (daphnia); gills on their legs; small; carapace in some; compound eyes; important role in food webs because they are prey for a lot of animals

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Class Maxillopoda

barnacles, copepods, and others, mostly parasitic; small, reduced abdomen with no appendages

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Class Ostracoda

“shell” or “tile.” Seed shrimp; flattened laterally, protected by bivalve-like shell; locomotion by antennae and limbs; only 5-7 pairs of appendages; found in all sorts of moist environments

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Class Malacostraca

largest and most diverse class of crustaceans with 40,000 species. Has 16 orders, but we’ll only focus on 4: Isopoda, Amphipoda, Euphausiacea, and Decapoda). Eight thoracic and six abdominal segments, abdominal appendages

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Order Isopoda

diverse group, dorsoventrally flattened, no carapace, 7 pairs of legs that are uniform, gills or gill-like structures for breathing, important ecological role

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Order Amphipoda

laterally compressed body, no carapace, diverse limb types, mostly marine, but freshwater and terrestrial species exist, diverse diet, often curl in C-shape when disturbed, are dentrivores (an important ecological role)

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Order Euphausiacea

krill, which are shrimp-like crustaceans. Mostly marine and open ocean, gills on swimming legs, foundation of most marine food webs, can form massive swarms

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Order Decapoda

largest order of Class Malacostraca, which contains crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, and prawns. Five pairs of legs — hence the name. Marine, freshwater, terrestrial; well-developed carapace covering head and thorax; ecological and economic importance

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Subphylum Hexapoda

defining characteristics include a unique tracheal system, 6 legs, and the 3 tagmata include the head, thorax, and abdomen

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Class Entognatha

bases of mouthparts located inside head capsule; small, wingless; e.g. springtails

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Class Insecta

the bases of mouthparts are visible. Chitinous cuticle; 3 pairs of uniramous legs; 1 pair of antennae; compound eye; usually 2 pairs of wings (but there are exceptions)

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Paleoptera

division of insects meaning “old wings.” They cannot fold their wings over the abdomen; e.g. mayflies, dragonflies

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Neoptera

division of insects meaning “new wings.” Can fold their wings; majority of flying insects

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Holometabola

88% of insects; undergo complete metamorphosis; e.g. ants, bees, beetles, flies, fleas, butterfiles and moths, caddisflies…

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direct muscles

in insect thorax, attached to wing bases, precise flying

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indirect muscles

attached to an insect thorax, faster wing beats

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insect mouthparts

specialised for diets and feeding behaviour. e.g. chewing, piercing-sucking, siphoning, sponging, cutting-sponging

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air sacs

some insects have them as part of the tubular network that is their tracheal system

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hemolymph

fluid in the open circulatory system that carries waste and nutrients in insects

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ostia

holes in which hemolymph enters the heart through in insects

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aorta

the tubular part of the insect open circulatory system in which hemolymph exits into the body cavity to flow freely

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ventral nerve cord

runs along the length of the insect body and is located around the front of their bodies or at their “bellies.” Transmits nerve signals to ganglia throughout the body

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subesophageal ganglion

located below the oesophagus in the insect central nervous system; controls the mouthparts, salivary glands, and certain neck muscles

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segmental ganglia

the “brains” of each segment of an insect body are the functional units of the insect central nervous system

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peripheral nervous system

nerves branching from central nervous system to muscles and organs in insects

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visceral nervous system

regulates internal organs in insects

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spermatophores

depositable clusters of sperms some male insects do to help reproduce

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haplodiploidy

in bees, ants, and wasps. The queen’s haploid egg cell itself results in a drone son. The queen’s egg combined with a drone’s sperm results in a diploid worker daughter

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complete metamorphosis

larvae look very different from adults

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incomplete metamorphosis

the babies look like the adults, but are smaller

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insect social behaviour

exists on a spectrum from solitary (most insects) to eusocial (a few lineages)

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eusocial

defined by cooperative brood care, overlapping generations, and reproductive division of labor (castes) e.g. ants, termites, bees, and some wasps

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sex

classification of living organisms based on their reproductive anatomy

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gender

human societal construct that refers to roles, behaviour, activity, and identities

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promiscuity

all members of a species mate with each other

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polygyny

several females mate with one male

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polyandry

several males mate with one female

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monogamy

one male and one female mate with each other

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intersexual selection

one sex, often the female, selects an opposite sex mate based on certain qualities

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intrasexual selection

same-sex individuals compete for access to mates

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simultaneous hermaphrodism

contain both male and female gonads and both pairs of gonads are functional