Bipolar and depression

Abnormal Affect

Mood disorders where emotions are excessively elevated or depressed for at least 2 weeks, impairing normal functioning.

Depression (Unipolar)

Persistent low mood, hopelessness and loss of interest without manic episodes.

Mania (Bipolar)

Periods of abnormally elevated mood alternating with depressive episodes.

Depression Symptoms

Suicidal thoughts or attempts, Psychomotor agitation such as pacing or hand, Changes in appetite or sleep, changes in sleep or lethargy, Social withdrawal, Poor concentration and memory, Persistent sadness, despair and pessimism.

Mania Symptoms

Euphoria or feeling "high." Irritability or rage, Racing thoughts and distractibility, Sudden interest in new activities, Overconfidence, Delusions, Rapid speech, Reduced need for sleep, risk taking

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

A 21-item self-report questionnaire measuring the severity of depression.

BDI Scoring

Each question is scored from 0-3 based on symptom severity.

BDI Mild Depression

Score of around 10.

BDI Moderate Depression

Score of 19-29

BDI Severe Depression

Score above 30.

BDI Strength

High validity and reliability.

BDI Strength

Produces objective quantitative scores.

BDI Strength

Measures improvement during treatment.

BDI Weakness

Cannot capture detailed experiences.

BDI Weakness

Vulnerable to response bias and exaggeration.

BDI Application

Helps diagnose depression and monitor treatment.

BDI Application

Identifies patients at risk of suicide.

BDI Application

Adapted for children under 13.

Oruc et al. (1997) Aim

Investigate serotonin gene polymorphisms in bipolar disorder.

Oruc et al. (1997) Sample

42 bipolar patients and 40 matched healthy controls from Croatia.

Oruc et al. (1997) Procedure

DNA testing for 5-HTR2C and SERT serotonin genes.

Oruc et al. (1997) Results

No significant genetic differences overall.

Oruc et al. (1997) Results

Females showed greater serotonin gene polymorphisms, suggesting increased bipolar risk.

Sexually Dimorphic

Differences between males and females excluding reproductive organs.

Oruc et al. (1997) Evaluation Strength

Laboratory DNA analysis reduced researcher bias.

Oruc et al. (1997) Evaluation Weakness

Small sample limits generalisability.

Beck (1979) Explanation

Depression results from faulty information processing and cognitive distortions.

Cognitive Distortion

Automatic irrational thinking based on negative schemas.

Schema

Mental framework formed from previous experiences.

Negative Cognitive Triad

Negative views about the self, the world and the future.

Effect of Cognitive Triad

Impaired perception, memory and problem solving.

Learned Helplessness

Giving up after believing negative situations cannot be controlled.

Seligman et al. (1988) Explanation

Depression develops when people perceive they have no control over outcomes.

Dog Experiment

Dogs exposed to unavoidable shocks later failed to escape when escape became possible.

Attribution

How people explain the causes of events.

Internal Attribution

Blaming yourself.

External Attribution

Blaming outside factors.

Stable Attribution

Believing the cause is permanent.

Unstable Attribution

Believing the cause is temporary.

Global Attribution

Believing the cause affects many areas of life.

Specific Attribution

Believing the cause affects only one area.

Seligman et al. Sample

39 unipolar patients, 12 bipolar patients and 10 controls.

Seligman et al. Procedure

Participants completed the BDI and Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ).

Seligman et al. Results

Depressed participants showed more pessimistic attributional styles.

Seligman et al. Results

Higher BDI scores correlated with greater pessimism.

Seligman et al. Results

Improved attributional style was associated with lower depression scores.

BDI & ASQ Evaluation Strength

Standardised, valid measures.

BDI & ASQ Evaluation Weakness

Correlation does not establish causation.

Nature vs Nurture

Biological explanations emphasise genes while learned helplessness emphasises environmental experiences.

Individual Explanation

Beck explains depression through dysfunctional thinking.

Situational Explanation

Learned helplessness develops through environmental experiences.

Reductionism

Genetic explanation focuses only on serotonin

Determinism

Genetic explanations suggest depression risk is inherited and difficult to change.

MAOIs

Antidepressants that prevent monoamine oxidase from breaking down serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine.

MAOI Side Effects

Headaches, drowsiness, insomnia, nausea, diarrhoea, constipation, addiction and suicidal thoughts.

MAOI Use

Reserved for treatment

SSRIs

Antidepressants that prevent serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin in the synapse.

SSRIs Advantage

Fewer and less severe side effects than MAOIs.

Fournier et al. (2010) Finding

MAOIs and SSRIs are more effective than placebos, especially for moderate to severe depression.

ECT

Uses electrically induced seizures to treat severe depression.

ECT Use

Last resort when medication and CBT are ineffective.

Dierckx et al. (2012) Finding

Around 50% remission rate following ECT.

ECT Weakness

Benefits are usually short

Jelovac et al. (2013) Finding

Relapse rates after ECT are similar to stopping antidepressants.

Cognitive Restructuring (Beck, 1979)

Therapy that identifies and challenges irrational thoughts.

Cognitive Restructuring Step 1

Explain the cognitive triad.

Cognitive Restructuring Step 2

Monitor and record negative thoughts.

Cognitive Restructuring Step 3

Identify cognitive distortions.

Cognitive Restructuring Step 4

Challenge irrational beliefs using reality testing.

Reality Testing

Examining whether negative thoughts accurately reflect reality.

Reattribution

Considering alternative internal or external causes of events.

Therapy Goal

Patients independently challenge irrational thinking.

Wiles et al. (2013) Sample

469 depressed patients.

Wiles et al. (2013) Results

CBT patients were three times more likely to improve than medication alone.

REBT

Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy developed by Ellis (1962).

Stoicism

Philosophy stating emotions result from beliefs rather than events.

Musturbation

Rigid beliefs such as "I must succeed" that cause emotional distress.

ABCDE Model A

Activating event.

ABCDE Model B

Beliefs about the event.

ABCDE Model C

Emotional and behavioural consequences.

ABCDE Model D

Disputing irrational beliefs.

ABCDE Model E

Effective new rational philosophy.

Logical Disputing

Questions whether beliefs are logically true.

Empirical Disputing

Looks for factual evidence supporting beliefs.

Pragmatic Disputing

Examines whether beliefs are useful.

REBT Strength

Empowers patients to change their own thinking.

REBT Strength

Highly effective for Generalised Anxiety Disorder.

REBT Weakness

Can feel confrontational.

REBT Weakness

Focuses mainly on cognition and may overlook biology.

REBT Free Will

Assumes individuals can consciously change irrational beliefs.

REBT Application

Provides lifelong skills for managing future emotional problems.