Lipski. The mediterranean, Spain and Africa: the first moments, pp. 14-26

When did the slave trade begin in sub-Saharan Africa?

Long before the arrival of Europeans, as early as the Roman Empire.

Who primarily conducted the early slave trade in Africa after the spread of Islam?

Moslem dealers.

What is the estimated range of Africans exported from Africa between the eighth and fifteenth centuries?

Between 3.5 million and 10 million.

What was the average annual number of slaves taken from Africa during the early slave trade?

Only a few thousand.

What major event in the Iberian Peninsula began in 711 that influenced slavery?

The Moorish conquest.

Which regions were common sources for slaves during the medieval European slave trade?

The Balkans, Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, Turkey, and southern Russia.

What does the term 'slave' originate from?

The common use of Slavic peoples, particularly Russians, as slaves.

When did the presence of black Africans in Italy and Sicily begin to increase?

As early as the thirteenth century.

Which Italian kingdoms were involved in importing black slaves during the early fifteenth century?

Naples, Venice, and Sicilian kingdoms.

What was the significance of the slave transshipment depot set up in Pisa?

It allowed merchants from Florence, Rome, and other cities to purchase West African slaves.

What term was used in Catalan to refer to African-born slaves in Valencia?

Bozals.

What was the role of Genoese, Venetian, and Sicilian merchants in the slave trade?

They actively participated in the Mediterranean slave trade.

What cultural connections existed between Italian city-states and the Iberian Peninsula during the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries?

Significant cultural and commercial ties, with Italian expatriates in Lisbon and Seville.

What demographic shift occurred regarding African slaves in Italy and Sicily?

Initially predominantly female, the preference shifted to male slaves for agriculture and domestic servitude.

What linguistic continuum did African-born slaves in Italy likely progress through?

From rudimentary pidgin to ethnically neutral European language.

What is notable about the literary document found from the late fifteenth century?

It is a sonnet by Florentine poet Alessandro Braccesi, showcasing phonetic deformations.

What were the living conditions of African slaves in southern Spanish cities during the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries?

Similar to those found in Italy, indicating a shared experience.

What was the impact of the Portuguese slave trade on the Iberian Peninsula?

It solidified the connection between Iberian and Italian slave markets.

What role did the Crusades play in the history of slavery in Europe?

They initiated contact with various peoples deemed suitable for enslavement.

Which regions did black slaves in Italy come from by the middle of the fifteenth century?

Primarily West Africa, through Portuguese dealers.

How did the slave trade affect the linguistic landscape in Iberia?

It contributed to the development of Afro-Iberian languages.

What was the significance of the arrival of Wolofs in Valencia in 1489?

It marked the beginning of recorded African slave presence in Valencia.

What were the primary uses of African slaves in Italy and Sicily?

Concubines, domestic service, and agricultural labor.

What was the estimated number of Wolofs taken to Valencia in the late fifteenth century?

Nearly 2,500.

What was the impact of the Italian slave market on the Iberian Peninsula?

It facilitated the sale of black slaves from Italy to southern and southeastern Spain.

What linguistic feature is observed in Afro-Panamian negro congo speech?

An epenthetic semivocalic /i/ (and sometimes /r/) is added to many syllables, as seen in forms like fiaccia < faccia.

When did the presence of black Africans in Spain begin?

Long before the Portuguese-initiated Atlantic slave trade in the second half of the fifteenth century.

What role did Arab traders play in the history of black Africans in Spain?

They were involved in slave trading with sub-Saharan Africa since the Middle Ages, establishing early contacts.

Which powerful African city-states were involved in early slave trade with Europe?

Mali, Takrur, Ghana, Oyo, Benin, Kanem, and Songhai.

What commodities were exchanged in the early trade between North Africa and sub-Saharan regions?

Gold, textiles, dates, kola nuts, pepper, hides, and slaves.

What was the estimated range of slaves exported to the eastern Mediterranean from sub-Saharan Africa between 700-1700?

A low estimate of over 1,000 and an upper figure of more than 6,000 slaves per year.

How did European explorers benefit from existing trade systems in West Africa during the fifteenth century?

They could tap into efficient trade systems without needing to establish infrastructure.

What was the purpose of the Portuguese fortress at Elmina?

To protect Akan gold shipments.

How did black Africans first come to Spain during the Moorish occupation?

They were acquired from Ethiopia and through trans-Sahara trade caravans.

What significant event occurred in Seville in 1248 regarding black slaves?

Christian Spaniards acquired black slaves formerly owned by the Moslems after the reconquest.

What was the significance of the cofradía formed in Seville by 1401?

It was the first mutual aid society for blacks, called the 'Santísimo Cristo de la Fundacíon' or 'de los negritos.'

What was the petition made by a group of black slaves in Aragón in 1472?

They petitioned to form a cofradía named 'Nuestra Señora de Gracia' and to purchase a residence in Valencia.

What was the general awareness of black 'Ethiopians' in southern Europe before the fifteenth century?

There was a general awareness, but direct contact with sub-Saharan Africa was sporadic.

What impact did Portuguese explorations have on the number of black Africans in Spain?

They led to an increase in the number of black Africans arriving in the Iberian Peninsula.

What is the significance of the 'Sonetto di Schiavonia paisa'?

It features a deformed Italian possibly used by slaves of African origin, reflecting the linguistic influences of the time.

How did the Moorish occupation influence the presence of black Africans in Spain?

Moorish forces brought black Africans from Ethiopia and engaged in the trans-Sahara trade.

What was the relationship between European traders and African hosts during the slave trade?

European traders depended on the goodwill of their African hosts for favorable treatment.

What was the role of Muslim residents in Córdoba regarding black bodyguards?

They protested that the royal bodyguards were mostly blacks who spoke no Arabic.

What was the nature of the trade routes established between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa?

They were interlocking groups and societies facilitating trade across the Sahara.

What was the estimated displacement of slaves from sub-Saharan regions across the Sahara during medieval times?

Over one million slaves were displaced.

What was the significance of the black slaves present in Majorca, Aragón, and Valencia by the thirteenth century?

They were largely from Italy and Sicily, indicating the spread of African presence in Spain.

What is the historical context of the term 'Afro-Hispanic'?

It refers to the linguistic and cultural influences of African heritage in Spanish-speaking regions.

What initiated the arrival of black Africans in the Iberian Peninsula?

The Portuguese explorations of the West African coast in the early fifteenth century.

Where were the first large populations of black Africans found in the Iberian Peninsula?

In Portugal, especially in Lisbon.

What was the status of the first black Africans arriving in fifteenth-century Portugal?

They were free emissaries, but slaves soon followed.

What type of prejudice existed against blacks in medieval Spain and Portugal?

Prejudice based on vague travel accounts and semi-mythical stories of 'Ethiopia.'

What does the presence of Portuguese borrowings in West African languages indicate?

That Portuguese became a significant linguistic presence in West Africa.

Who were the most fluent African speakers of Portuguese?

Christianized Manicongo or Kongo emperor and his ministers.

How did Africans with only a passing acquaintance with Portuguese communicate?

They spoke a rough pidgin.

What was the initial attitude of Portuguese explorers towards African populations?

They regarded them with curiosity and amusement, without the intention of enslavement.

What did Portugal establish with wealthy African kingdoms like the Kingdom of the Kongo?

Diplomatic relations as with a European or Asian power.

What was the nature of the initial trade between Europeans and West African leaders?

It involved luxury items like gold and ivory in exchange for guns and European goods.

What was the existing practice of slavery in many African communities before European contact?

Slavery was a flourishing industry, often involving prisoners of war or members sold to alleviate population pressures.

How did slavery in sub-Saharan Africa differ from American plantation slavery?

African slaves were more integrated into society, enjoyed some autonomy, and could obtain freedom more easily.

What does the term 'institutionalization of marginality' refer to in the context of African slavery?

It describes how slavery was a means of integrating non-clan members into the clan structure.

How were slaves typically acquired within African societies?

From outside the immediate ethnic group, often through established trade mechanisms.

What was the communication dynamic among slaves and free community members in Africa?

Communication was usually facilitated due to shared ethnic backgrounds and cultural practices.

How were slaves treated in terms of family separation in African societies?

Slaves were not typically separated from their spouses or children.

What kind of living conditions did slaves have compared to free community members in Africa?

Their living conditions were generally similar to those of less fortunate free community members.

What role did the Kingdom of the Kongo play in the regional dynamics before European arrival?

It had enjoyed superiority over neighboring groups and was seen as a natural leader.

What was a significant factor in the leadership dynamics among slaves from different regions?

Leadership often gravitated to Bakongos when Bantu speakers from the Congo Basin were involved.

What is the significance of Kikongo lexical items in Latin America?

They are prevalent in regions where Bantu-speaking slaves were present, reflecting African linguistic influence.

What does the term 'congo' symbolize in African traditions?

It became synonymous with leadership and power, particularly in ritualistic contexts.

How did Europeans perceive black Africans during the slave trade?

They viewed them as a cheap and durable labor supply, often seeing them as inferior and different.

What was the traditional African practice of slavery?

It involved the enslavement of prisoners of war, which was already established before European involvement.

What role did the Portuguese and Spaniards have in the context of slavery?

They were familiar with slavery from the Moorish occupation and had no moral objections to enslaving Africans.

What misconception did Europeans have about certain African groups?

They viewed some Africans as primitive and incapable of resisting foreign intrusion, contrasting with powerful African leaders.

What were 'bozales' and 'gente sin razón'?

'Bozales' referred to Africans who spoke little or no European languages, while 'gente sin razón' meant 'people without reason,' reflecting racist attitudes.

What motivated King João I of Portugal to explore North Africa?

He sought expansion following the defeat of Moorish forces and was attracted by the prospect of wealth in sub-Saharan Africa.

Who was Mansa Musa and what is he known for?

He was the Islamic ruler of the Kingdom of Mali, known for his extravagant pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, showcasing immense wealth.

What was the significance of the Portuguese capturing Ceuta in 1415?

It marked the beginning of direct European exploration for African resources, particularly gold.

What tales did Arab traders tell Europeans about sub-Saharan Africa?

They spoke of immense wealth, powerful kingdoms, and the legendary city of Timbuktu.

What technological advancements aided Portuguese exploration?

The invention of the caravelle and improved seafaring techniques allowed for deeper exploration of the African coast.

What was the myth surrounding Cape Bojador?

It was believed to be a dangerous area with supernatural forces that prevented ships from returning along the coast.

Who was Gil Eannes and what did he achieve in 1434?

He was a Portuguese pilot who disproved the myths of Cape Bojador by successfully rounding it and returning safely.

What were the challenges faced by early Portuguese sailors?

They dealt with superstitions, fragile ships, and the need to navigate dangerous waters to return to Europe.

How did the perception of Africans change when they were taken to Europe and the Americas?

They were seen as 'different' and inferior, leading to intensified racism and cultural mockery.

What was the impact of the African slave trade on Afro-Iberian relations?

The trade created complex social dynamics, often leading to exploitation and cultural misunderstandings.

What was the initial purpose of Portuguese maritime exploration?

To secure wealth for European merchants by finding sources of gold and other resources in Africa.

What did Europeans often interpret as primitive conditions in Africa?

They misjudged the social and political structures of African societies, viewing them through a colonial lens.

What were the consequences of the Portuguese exploration for African societies?

It led to increased exploitation, the establishment of trade routes, and the onset of the transatlantic slave trade.

How did linguistic barriers affect interactions between Europeans and Africans?

Africans often used their languages to bypass European visitors, creating communication challenges.

What was the role of trade goods in the early interactions between Europeans and Africans?

African groups offered slaves in exchange for European trade goods, establishing a complex trade relationship.

What was the perception of Africans who adopted European cultural styles?

Their attempts at cultural crossover were often met with mockery and derision.

What was the significance of the gold transported by Arab traders?

It confirmed the wealth of sub-Saharan kingdoms and fueled European interest in African resources.

What was the purpose of the Portuguese maintaining the secrecy of their return route?

To discourage other Europeans, particularly Spaniards, from dislodging Portuguese explorers from the African coasts.

Who was Captain Antam Gonçalvez?

A Portuguese captain who, in 1441, went ashore along the coast of what would later be the Spanish colony of Rio de Oro and captured several prisoners.

What significant event occurred in Lisbon following Gonçalvez's return?

The return of ships with tangible evidence of black captives, supporting fabulous tales about Africa.

What was Arguim Island's significance in the slave trade?

It became the first slaving station for the European slave trade in Africa, where more than two hundred captives were rounded up.

How did Portuguese explorers initially obtain slaves?

They discovered it was easier to obtain slaves by barter than by capture, trading in luxury goods.

What was the first permanent Portuguese trading presence on the mainland of West Africa?

The Senegambia and Guinea-Bissau regions.

What was the role of the fortress of Elmina?

Constructed in 1482, it consolidated Portuguese control of trade in a contested zone and became a major source of gold.

What was the Kongo Kingdom's relationship with Portugal?

Diplomatic relations were established with the Kongo Kingdom, and many noble children were sent to Portugal for education.

Who was Nzinga Mbemba?

A Congolese leader who was baptized as a Christian and took the name Dom Affonso, later becoming the Manicongo.

What impact did Portuguese missionaries have in the Congo?

They increased their presence, leading to many Portuguese borrowings into Kikongo and fostering cultural exchanges.