Unit 3

A. Iberian peninsula

• Before: ruled Aragon and Castille

• Changes: brutal repression, Charles V learns Spanish

• After: united Spain

• Continuities: Common religion (RC) and common lang

A. Americas

• Before: rebellious knights in Spain

• Changes: sent knights to Americas (conquistadores)

• After: growing empire in the Americas

• Continuities: political hierarchy (knights r still important)

A. Capetian Kingdom

• Before: Capetian Kingdom

• Changes: Charles V fails to annex France into HRE

• After: Kingdom of France

• Continuities: French lang, French speaking king

A. Italian speakers and HRE

• Before: HRE extends to Italian speakers

• Changes: split from HRE

• After: separate Italian states

• Continuities: Italian lang, Habsburg rule (Italians detested)

A. Kingdom of England, Wales, and Calais

• Before: part of RCC, ally w/ HRE

• Changes: split from Rome, growing power of king and parliament

• After: Protestant kingdom of England

• Continuities: English lang, Christianity, powerful parliament

A. Duchy of Burgundy

• Before: Duchy of Burgundy and surrounding lands

• Changes: Reformation, growing global trade

• After: Prot. Netherlands, Cath. Belgium

• Continuities: Center of trade, Christianity

A. Scientific Revolution

• Before: Greeks and Romans “had figured everything out”

• Changes: Copernicus (heliocentrism), Vesalius (modern anatomy), printing press

• After: Modern science (learn from observations)

• Continuities: Latin books

A. Fleeing Modern Europe

• Before: Charles V - HREmperor

• Changes: retirement (+ Spain to Philip II), desired Charlemagne type reign

• After: Modern Europe forming, Charles V failed

• Continuities: Europe’s propensity towards change

A. Reformation

• Before: HR(Catholic)E

• Changes: Reformation, Martin Luther, printing press, wars of religion

• After: wars of religion - RC v Protestants

• Continuities: German lang, Christianity

B. context of Reform movements

• R.C church united Europe religiously and culturally

• 16th-17th cent: revolts against R.C church shattered religious unity

B. Protestant Reformation

• dates from early 16th century

• underlying conditions that inspired PR:

  • political intrigue + growing wealth → corruption → undermined R.C church’s spiritual auth

• inc. criticism + demand 4 personal involvement w/ God fueled PR

B. Martin Luther

• 1483-1546

• united rel. discontent into powerful revolt against R.C.C

  • attacked sale of indulgences; supported by others

• cause heavily benefitted from printing press

• German translation of Bible → inc. distribution of rel. books and pamphlets + inc literacy

• attacked R.C church 4 many abuses; called 4 reform

  • “justification by faith alone”: core of Protestant beliefs

• rejected auth of the church hierarchy

  • “Bible: only source of auth”

• works fueled reform in Germany and Switzerland

• m.16th: half of Germany was Lutheran; reformers launched Pro. movements

B. John Calvin

• 1504-64

• initiated more influential Reformation in France and Switzerland

• codified Protestant teachings (1536)

• Calvinist beliefs: people alr. pre-destined 4 salvation

• Calvinists bound by strict morality and discipline (ie no dancing)

• organized Pro. comm in Geneva; imposed str. morality on city

B. English Reformation

• Protestants faced govt. resistance in building following in Eng. until Henry VIII

• Henry VIII: cut off relations w/ R.C church and became Supreme Head of the Anglican Church

  • successors replaced R.C doctrines and rituals w/ Pro. ones; 1560: Eng. had permanently left R.C community

• l-16th: Protestants (Lutherans, Calvinists, Anglicans) had built large communities → no chance of rel. unity in W. Euro

B. Catholic Reformation

• 16th cent. Cath attempt to reform R.C.C and confront Pro.

  • inspired by Council of Trent reforms and Jesuits

B. Council of Trent

• 1545-1563

• intermittent meetings w/ assembly of high R.C.C officials to reform R.C.C to inc. morality and improve priests’ prep

B. The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

• by St. Ignatius Loyola in 1540

• he req. that Jesuits have advanced education → highly effective missionaries

C. Violence against women post-Reformation

• l-15th theory that witches got their power from the devil

  • “witches sabbath” - meetings w/ devil worship, purely fiction

• fear led to witch hunts (started 16th): many underwent trial/executed in 16th-17th

• Gender played imp. role in witch-hunts

  • most convicted: widowed/old/poor/single women

• 18th: fear of witches mostly gone

D. Political effects of Reformation: religious wars

• tension led to war btwn P. and R.C comms

• Spanish Armada: huge flotilla; sent to Eng. 1588 to dethrone Eliz. I and make Eng. R.C again

• rel. convictions fueled Dutch provinces’ revolt from Spain

  • 1567: Phillip II tightened control, sought to suppress Calvinism

  • resistance → rebellion

• 1610: formation of United Provinces (now Netherlands)

D. Thirty Years War

• due to HRE emperor forcing Bohemians to ret. to R.C.C; war mainly in Germany

• 1/3 of German pop died

D. The New Monarchs

• Henry VIII, Louis XI/Francis I, Fernando & Isabel

• sought to inc. wealth → new sources of revenue (i.e. taxes and fines)

• enlarged admin. staffs → collecting taxes and implementing policies more reliably

• Fr. and Sp. monarchs maintained standing armies → inc power

• UK: inc. power by subjecting nobles to roy. justice and making them comply

D. The Spanish Inquisition

• 1478-1834

• originally to ferret out Jews and Muslims

  • Charles also charged it w/ detecting Pro. heresy

• fear of Inquisition → many stayed silent; strict R.C orthodoxy prevailed

• used its influence on behalf of Sp. monarchy

E. Constituional states and English Civil War

• Eng and Dutch kingdom; rulers shared auth w/ representative institutions

• Eng. Civil War (1642-49)

  • const. govt came to Eng. after pol. and re. disputes led to E.C.W

  • series of armed conflicts btwn Eng;ish crown and parlia

  • parlia forces (led by Olikver Cromwell) capt. Charles I; tried him 4 tyranny and beheaded him in 1649

E. The Glorious Revolution

• 1688-9

• led to replacement of Cath. James II by parliament w/ Pro. Mary II & William of Orange

• Cromwell took over; became dictator → restoration of monarchy (1660, Charles II)

• parlia and monarchy disputes → Glorious Revolution

• resulting agreement: kings rule in coop w/ parlia → constituencies have rep in govt. affairs

E. The Dutch Republic

• 1581: group of Dutch provinces form anti-Spain alliance; ind. United Provinces

• Rep assemblies org. local affairs in each province → foundation for Dutch republic

  • Spanish recognition 1648

  • e.17th cent: ord. affairs in N. Low Countries

E. More about constitutional states

• in pol. crises: pop. ;eaders could get support by appealing to pol-rel interests of constituencies

  • Eng and Netther harnessed pop. support and used it to magnify state power

• merchants politically prominent; state policies favorable 4 global trade and comm empires → immense prosperity 17th and 18th cent

• alliance btwn merchants and rulers: wealth 4 state, merchants favored in politics

E. Absolute monarchies

• Absolutism: pol. philosophy; stressed divine right theory of kingship

  • no role 4 commoners and nobles in pub affairs; monarchs made laws

  • disobedience → punishment; rebellion: blasphemy

  • abs. monarchs dependent on support from social groups

  • reflected efforts of roy. centralization

E. Louis XIV

• 1670s: built residence @ Versailles

• large standing army, economic development, wars to gain land and power

• “l’etat, c’est moi”

E. Russia

• absolutism had power to increase state power via Romanov tsars tightly centralizing govt

• Romanovs: Rus. dyn, 1620-1917, inherited large state (Rus large by 1600)

• 1772-92: Aus, Prus, and Rus partitioned Poland 4 themselves

E. Peter the Great

• 1687-1725

• sought to modernize Russia based on models of W. Euro states

• reformed army

• St. Petersburg (1703): seaport, intended capital

• imposed westernization → protests

E. Catherine the Great

• 1763-96

• sought to make Rus. powerful, protect peasant rights

• preserving autocratic rule > westernization

• 1773-4: Pugachev’s rebellion

  • death toll: thousands of nobles/officials

  • imp. forces crushed uprsing

F. Peace of Westphalia (1648) and Seven Years’ War

• ended 30 Years War

• foundation for sys of ind., competing states

• did not stop wars such as the 7 Years’ War

• • Louis XIV imperialism → coalition against France → SYW

• balance of power: main tenet of early Euro. diplomacy

  • when states too strong, others formed coalitions against it

• states competed vigorously, sought to strengthen armie

• tech innovation extremely vital to state power

I. Scientific Revolution (17th-18th)

• Kepler: eliptical planet orbits

• Galilei: “heavens” variable, velocity of fall based on height, implied universe was much bigger

• Newton: laws of motion and gravity

• du Chatelet: translated Newton’s work w/ contributions

G. Increase of urbanization

• rapid pop growth: foundation of eco expansion

• Columbian Exchange: improved nutrition

• after m.17th: epidemic disease barely influential

• decreasing mortality rates

• rapid pop growth → = rate urbanization

H. Economies on society: capitalism

• economic growth coincided w/ advent of capitalism

  • private parties make their products available on a free market

• cap eco. order developed as ppl learned to take advantage of market conditions by building efficient networks of transportation and comms

H. Institutions

• banks: held funds 4 safekeeping, loans

• Insurance companies: mitigated financial losses

• stock exchanges: prov markets 4 ppl to buy/sell shares

H. Joint-stock companies, states

• precursor to mod. corps

• ppl who invested in maritime ventures could profit w/ little risk

• prime foundation of emerging global economy

• Eng and Dutch esp capitalistic bc influential merch

• imperial expansion and colonial rule crucial to capitalism’s development

H. Guilds

• monopolized prod of goods; however, cap encouraged entrepreneurs to manufacture

• sought to protect markets and members socially; discouraged innovation

H. Putting-out-system and ProtoIndustrialization

• guilds forced entrepreneurs into rural areas due to inflexibility

• entrepreneurs give raw mats to countryside families; spin and weave garments 4 entre 4 pay

• prominent in society til rise of industrialism

H. Serfdom in Russia

• 1649: law code → tight state control over Rus. laborers

  • by est castelike soc order that restored job and phys mobility

• to maintain nobles’ allegiance, restricted Rus. peasants and made them serfs

• serfs: peasants tied to land and obligated to lords

• emerged in middle agesl came to end 18th cent in W. Europe

• E.Europe: tighter restrictions on peasants 16th; ended in Rus 19th

• crucial role in capitalism’s emergence (E.Euro: cheap food and raw mats → economic development)

H. Profits and ethics

• Medieval theoligans considerd profit-making bad

• advocates sought to portray its social benefits

  • Adam Smith: argued society prospers when people pursue their own eco. interests

H. The nuclear family

• favored by cap as principal societal unit

• early capitalism → ind families grow wealthier → more socio-emotionally independent; more love

A. Str and weaknesses Ottoman: Rise and early times

• great success (1350-1640s); rule in Afro-Eurasia

• ghazi: great cavalry (earliest Ottomans)

• Devshirme system to get Janissaries; use guns

• religious toleration to non Mus. groups (millets)

  • millets led by their own rel. authorities

• early emperors: Suleyman the Magnificent

A. Viziers and trade problems

• after 1540s: sultans grow worse → viziers ran empire

  • shared power w/ Janissaries, harem, ulama

• decline of Silk Roads (BP, maritime trade) → less money

• huge amts of American silver → inflation → higher taxes → Celali rebellions

• Celali rebellions: threat to Sultan and harem

A. 1st Kapruli Vizier

• support from harem and ulama

• victories on land and sea

• ended Celali rebellions

• “fired” (killed) bad Janissaries

A. 2nd Kapruli Vizier

• appointed 1676

• started war on HRE

  • some Protestants from HRE wanted to be an Ottoman millet → opportunity to attack Vienna

A. Siege of Vienna

• 2nd K.V besieged Vienna

• Pope created “Holy League” of Chr. rulers v. Ottos

• Polish king leads largest cavalry charge and wins

• 2nd K.V executed by Sultan

A. Treaty of Carlowitz

• 1699 after Ottomans lost a lot more battles

• unequal treaty

  • lost lot of European territory

  • HRE claimed control of Ottoman Christians

• HRE broke treaty and took more land; Ott. grows weaker

B. Rise of the Safavid Empire: Shah Ismail

• 1501-24

• entered Tabriz as head of army and claimed “Shah” title

• Twelver Shiism: official religion, forced on former Sunnis

• Safi-al-Din: ancestor, Sufi mystic

• conquered Iranian plateau, expeditions in Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, C. Asia

B. Twelver Shiism

• 12 imams after Muhammed

  • 12th imam went in hiding (874), belief that he was still alive and would take power again

• qizlibash: “red heads”

B. Battle of Chaldiran

• Ott Sunni hated Saf Shiites bc of persecution and conversion

• Selim I the Grim persecuted Shiites and prepped Ott invasion of Saf when he became Sultan

• Battle of Chaldiran: Saf. state badly damaged; conflict for next 2 centuries (1514)

• later Saf rulers recovered; relied more heavily on Persian bureaucracy

B. Shah Abbas

• 1588-1629

• fully revitalized Saf. empire via encouraging trade and reforming pol-mil institutions

• moved capital to Isfahan

• utilized slave soldiers and inc. guns → stronger mil → ruled NW Iran, Caucasus, Mesopotamia

C. Rise of Mughal Empire

• 1523: Babur in N. India; wanted to rule a large empire

• 1523 & 25: invasions w/ guns

• 1526: Delhi conquered

C. Akbar

• 1556-1606

• inc. centralization

• mil campaigns: Gujurat, Bengal

• began to absorb Vijayanagar kingdom (foundation for later Mug expansion in S. India)

• religiously tolerant

  • divine faith: syncretic religion; “emperor is a common ruler of all minorities in India”

C. Aurangzeb

• 1659-1707

• campaigns to inc. rule in S. India

• not rel. tolerant

  • demolished Hindu temples and replaced them w/ mosques

  • tax on Hindus to promote Islam

  • led to animosity btwn Mus. and Hind. → resistances and rebellions

D. Society: Imperialism, piety, and Islam on the 3 Empires

• emperors considered their empires their own personal possessions

  • involved w/ mil and politics

  • basically: they owned all the land and granted it to peasants in return for taxes

• dynasty’s prestige from ruler and ancestors’ personal piety and mil. prowess

• Safavids: leaders of a Sufi. rel. order

• Ott and Mug: closely associated w/ famous Sufis

• Islamic devotion → imperialism; meshed w/ “glory of battle” from Mon. and Turk. trads

D. Women and politics

• Muslim theorists discouraged women in power; woman pol. powerful anyway

• many rulers bestowed auth. on their mom and fav. wife

• Hurrem Sultan: wife of Suleyman the Magnificent, consultant

• Mahd-E-Olya: mom of Shah Abbas, influential over husbands

  • efforts to limit qizlibash power → killed 1579

• Nur Jahan: ran govt. though husb Jahangir

D. Steppe traditions

• reflected by ruler’s autocratic auth

• Ott. sultans issued many laws; kanun: Suleyman’s laws

• Mug and Saf emperors asserted spiritual auth

  • Shah Ismail: imposing Shiism

  • Akbar: decree of rel. auth 1579

• brought succession problems: involved relatives fought for throne

  • fight intertwined w/ desire of diff. harem members to maintain court position

  • fear of being overthrown by family → killing family members (e.g. Ott. sultans)

E. Economy: agriculture and trade

• agrarian economies: foundation, financed mil. and govt.

• Euro merchants brought American crops → reg. cuisines changed

• global tr. networks encouraged coffee and tobacco consumption

E. Coffee and tobacco

• ~1600: Eng. merchants introduced tobacco

  • spread through Ott. empire in a few decades → coffeehouses

• moralists and rel. leaders disliked coffee and tobacco

• Sultan Murad IV outlawed cof. and tob.; executed partakers

• eventually accepted; cof. houses prominent in empires

E. Population growth

• pop. growth through all 3 empires

  • India: pop surged (intensive agriculture)

  • Saf: pop growth less rapid

  • Ott: pop grew due to expansions

    • after 1600: shrinking pop from territory loss

E. Trade

• empires ruled in lands actively involved in long-dist and global trade

• Ott. bought Persian silk to supply Italian market

  • cemented alliances w/ enemies via giving special trading concessions to merchants

• Saf. mil actively traded w/ Euro. trading companies

  • companies provided navy to help Saf. retake Hormuz from Portugal

• Isfahan: comm. center; extended tr. privileges

• Mug. paid less attention to trade due to large size and productive economy

  • little int. in maritime efforts, conc on land empires

• Ind. merchants formed tr. companies

F. Policies and Christian mission in India

• all empires were rel. and ethn. diverse

• Goa: center of Christian mission

  • Goan priests attracted converts

  • est. rel schools and instruction to Indian kids

• 1580: Akbar invites Jesuits to Mughal

  • unsuccessfully tried to convert Akbar and spread faith

F. Divine faith

• not fervent abt. Islam; rel. tolerant; supported early Sikh efforts

• wanted rel. synthesis that would be cult. foundation of Mug. empire

F. Status of rel. minorities

• empires relied on est. models to deal w/ non-Mus

• no forced conversion

  • ext. status to dhimmi (prot. ppl) in ret. for jizya

  • Ott: millets (autonomous rel. comms) retained civil laws and culture

  • assumed soc. and admin functions (birth, healthcare, education)

• Promotion of Islam

  • Aurangzeb reached Mug. in 1659; reinstated jizya and made Islam the new official faith

G. Architectural achievements: Istanbul

• Istanbul pride of Ottoman empire

• Topkapi Palace: housed govt. offices

• Suleymaniye: vast rel. complex

G. Isfahan

• Saf. palaces in Isfahan: small, emphasized nature

• official capital

• Ali Qapu: palace on Isfahan square; striking balcony, open veranda

G. Mughal architecture

• Fatehpur Sikri

  • ruler’s camp: Mug. capital (acc. to early Mug)

  • many mosques, forts, palaces; sometimes made a city (i.e. Fateh. Sikri)

• Taj Mahal

  • Shah Jahan 4 Mumtaz Mahal; their resting place

H. Governmental problems and economic decline

• 16th-18th cent: much change in SW and S Asia (ie Saf gone)

• economic decline due to costly mil. and admin. apparatus

• normally financed through expansion; however expansion slowed → lim. resources to support institutions

• gained money via raising taxes, selling offices, extortion

  • long term economic damage

• reliance on foreign trade → Europeans got leverage to be economically dominant (and conquer India)

H. Military decline

• coincided w/ Euro. domination

• 16th-17th: bought Euro. weapons to supply mil.

  • none of their own armaments

    • + financial difficulty → dated mil. tech and loss of power

H. Dynastic decline

• all empires eventually ruled by rulers who prioritized pleasure > politics

• faced infighting

• Ott. confined princes to solve this problem → inexperienced princes

  • Ibrahim the Crazy (1640-8) taxed in excess; killed

H. Religious tension

• Conservative Mus. clerics objected to policies considered affronts to Islam

• Mus. leaders influential in the empires bc of monopoly of education and involvement of affairs of ord subjects

H. Rel tension in Ottoman

• disaffected rel. students often joined Janissaries in revolt

• Wahhabi movement: denounced Otts as unfit to rule

H. Rel tolerant in Safavid empire

• fell under Shiite domination; Shiite rulers pressured Shahs to persecuted non-Shiites

H. Rel. tension in Mughal empire

• 17th cent: Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi rebuked Akbar for rel. tolerance

• m-18th: Aurangzeb drew on Sirhindi’s ideas → destroyed Hindi temples; non-Mus had to pay tax

• animosity btwn non-Mus and Mus

A. Poli-economic situation in E.Asia

• The political and economical situation in East Asia, especially in the Ming dynasty, was worsening during the conflict over Korea.

• Silver from the Americas stimulated Chinese, Japanese, and European merchants. However, this caused inflation for the Ming dynasty, so it weakened.

• Then, Korea was invaded by Japan (led by Hideyoshi). The Ming dynasty could not provide consistent, sufficient support, which made the conflict lengthy.

B. Hongwe

• r. 1368-98

• founder of Ming dyn

• tightly centralized state

• mandarins: imperial officials who oversaw implementation of policies throughout land

• greatly trusted eunuchs

B. Yongle

• r. 1403-24

• launched various maritime expeditions throughout Ind Ocean (desc discontinued)

• moved capital to Beijing

B. Later emperors, Wanli

• later emperors lived extravagantly in Forbidden City; isolated from outside world, news from servants only

• Wanli (r. 1572 to 1620) conducted business via eunuch intermediaries who won emperors’ favor via concubines and used power to enrich themselves

B. Additional

• Great Wall: constr 15th-16th cent

• Conf sponsored by govt; restored c-s exams

• 1520s-60s: pirates and smugglers along coast → conflicts → community disruptions

C. Nurhacl

• unified tribes into cent. state w/ codified laws, org. mil

• Manchus preserved their cultural/ethnic identity

• Conf scho bureaucrats worked against Ming

C. How Qing rose

• 1644: rebels capture Beijing, Machu help Ming reconquer

• then Manchu took Beijing as their capital → new Qing dyn

C. Kangxi

• Confucian scholar

• wanted to diffuse Ch. influence into C. Asia → conquests up to Caspian Sea

C. Qianlong

• tributary states: Vietnam, Burma, Nepal

• super wealthy treasury → cancelled tax collections

• grew lazy → delegated to fav. eunuchs → desc followed

D. The Son of Heaven

• name of M/Qing emperor in Forbidden city

• awesome authority (kowtow, exclusive wardrobe)

D. Scholar bureaucrats

• students mmemorized works (ie Analects of Confucius)

• civil service examinations determined life into Ch. c-s

• limited # of govt positions, upward social mobility

• guaranteed Conf.’s prominence in society

E. Filial piety

• family ideal: patriarchal

• children’s duty to always look after parents

• extended into male-descent groups ie clans

• clans: large, diverse in class, many responsibilities (ie local economy)

• clan-supported education gave poor relatives opportunities

E. Footbinding

• small feet: “attractive”

• pop. among wealthy and lower classes (did it to enhance social standing)

• marriage to continue male-descent, contractual

F. Economic change

• intro of American crops → more cultivation → inc food supply and pop growth → soc-eco problems (agr prod couldn’t keep up)

• global trade made China prosperous despite tight govt control (l. 17th)

  • Macau: only port where Portuguese merchants could trade

  • Guangzhou: British agents could only trade w/ official merchant guild

  • discouraged large scale comm ventures

  • silver bullion stimulated Ch, economy and manufacturing

F. Economic continuity

• despite regulations, trade continued

  • strict oolicies had little effect → loosened

G. Ch merchant diaspora in SEA

• prominent in Manila and SEA

• silk and porcelain ←→ American silver

• entrepreneurs ventured throughout SEA for tropical products for consumers

H. Lack of tech innovation

1. govt: soc-pol stability > tech innovation

2. abundance of skilled workers

   1. higher more workers more cost-effective than making new tech

   2. short term relative prosperity

   3. long term imbalance of tech knowledge w/ Europeans by 19th cent

I. Privileged classes

• scholar bureaucrats most desired positions; above gentry

• favorable treatment due to privilege

• land: major source of income for gentry

• govt service: principal source of $, need degree

• normally lived in cities and towns

I. Working classes

• peasants: most honorable (provided food to all pop)

• artisans and workers: higher inc, self-employed/worked for elite/govt

• merchants: bottom level of Confucian soc hierarchy

  • blurred line w/ gentry via partnerships and educating children for c-s exams (prom to gentry)

I. Lower classes

• military: nec. evil

• “mean people" ie prostitutes, slaves

J. Neo-conf in society

• emperos funded Hanlin academy

• Yongle encyclopedia > Collection of Books (Kangxi)

J. Pop cukture

• literature merchants prefered pop novels

• Journey to the West: novel w/ magic monkey

J. Chr in China

• most prominent missionairies: Jesuits

• Matteo Ricci: founded Jesuit mission in China

• Jesuits piqued Ch interest via merch devices

• “adoption of Chr → more original Confucianism”

• people hesitated to convert due to exclusivitity

K. Controlling daimyo

• “alternate attendance”: daimyo had to maintain their families @ Edo and spend every other year @ court

• restrictions on daimyo activities ie marriage, meetings w/ Shogun

K. Socio-economic change

• fertilizer, new crop strains, irrigation → inc yields of rice → agr prod 2x in 17th cent

• J. soc hierarchy followed Conf social ranks

• daimyo and samurai lost place in society → poverty due to debt

• cities flourished → merchants prospered, controlled more wealth than elite

• some contracted marriages w/ elite families to climb social ranks