copernicus " saves the appearances "

deferent

 In Ptolemaic astronomy, a deferent is the large circular orbit around the earth along which the centre of a planets epicycle moves.

precession of the equinoxes

 the slow , gradual shift in the orientation of the earths rotational axis, causing the positions of the equinoxes( where day and night are equal) to move westward along the ecliptic over a cycle of about 26,000 years. ( equinoxes are the two times of the year when the day and night are nearly equal in length all over the earth. This happens when the sun is directly above the equator. There are two equinoxes each year: Vernal ( spring) around march 20-21 , autumnal( fall) around September 22-23

oisender

 German Lutheran theologian known for anonymously writing a preface to Copernicus heliocentric work, suggesting it was a mathematical hypothesis rather than a literal description of the universe

Rheticus Rheticu

(1514–1574) was a German mathematician and astronomer best known as a student of Nicolaus Copernicus and the first to publicize Copernicus' heliocentric theory. He played a crucial role in encouraging Copernicus to publish his groundbreaking work, "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), and wrote the "Narratio Prima" (First Account), which introduced Copernicus' heliocentric ideas to a wider audience

solar

 a solar day is the time it takes for the earth to complete one full rotation relative to the sun, which is about 24 hours and it determines our day length

Sidereal

a sidereal day is the time it takes for the earth to complete one full rotation relative to the fixed stars , which is slightly shorter about 23 hours and 56 minutes.

Earths 3 motions

1. Daily, on polar axis ( west to east counter clockwise) = day & night

2. Annual orbits sun = seasons ( year)

3. 26,000 years polar axis rotates = precession

equator

 - imaginary line bisecting the globe ( perpendicular to the Earths axis

Ecliptic

 the apparent path of the sun on the celestial sphere

Equinoxes

dates in spring and fall where those 2 intersect, at the "equinoctial points" ( night and day of equal length)

The fall of Rome

the physical destruction of war and economic collapse destroyed many collections of texts, education, institutions fell into ruins and society turned from pursuit of knowledge and empire to basic survival - this symbolized the end of ancient Rome and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe. Christianity: elements of Ptolemy's astronomy and Aristotle's logic

• The best and brightest minds were gathered by the church and turned their thoughts to question theology

• In the Latin west during the course of the middle ages the Christian church succeeded in establishing itself at the authority over intellectual as well as spiritual concerns

• There was balance between mystical and rational as long as separation was controlled by the catholic church

copernicus

late middle ages begging of modern era 15th century CE (1473-1543) - lived during the Renaissance, a period of intellectual revival in Europe

Scholasticism

Medieval method of learning, used by university academics Focused on reconciling Christian theology with classical philosophy, particularly Aristotle (3rd century BC).

• Common exercises included debates (disputationes),logical analysis and philology (textual meaning) to resolve contradictions between authors

Renaissance

a cultural movement of the 14th-17th- centuries, Italy and Northern Europe

“re-birth,” a return to the learning of the ancient Greeks and Romans; also (in politics) an emphasis on action

Humanism

Method of learning developed during the Renaissance, focusing on studying ancient texts in their original language

Pope Gregory XIII

(1502–1585) was the head of the Catholic Church from 1572 to 1585. He is best known for introducing the Gregorian calendar in 1582, which reformed the Julian calendar to better align with the solar year and ensure the correct timing of Easter.

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

famous work by capernicus published in 1543 which is the same year that he died. This book marked the beginning of the Copernican Revolution, challenging the geocentric model of the universe and proposing a heliocentric system, where the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun.

Cardinal Nicolas Schoenberg, 1536 letter

On November 1, 1536, Cardinal Nikolaus,wrote a letter to Nicolaus Copernicus expressing admiration for his work and urging him to share his heliocentric theory with the scholarly community.

Dedicatory letter to Pope Paul III, 1542

The Dedicatory Letter to Pope Paul III, written by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1542, served as the preface to his revolutionary work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, published in 1543. In this letter, Copernicus addressed Pope Paul III, dedicating the book to him as a gesture of respect and protection.

Andreas Osiander, Lutheran clergyman, 1543 preface

in 1543, as De revolutionibus orbium coelestium was nearing publication, Andreas Osiander assumed the role of overseeing its printing in Nuremberg after the departure of Copernicus's disciple, Georg Joachim Rheticus. Without Copernicus's consent, Osiander added an unsigned preface titled "Ad lectorem de hypothesibus huius operis" ("To the Reader concerning the Hypotheses of this Work"). This preface suggested that the heliocentric model presented was merely a mathematical hypothesis, not necessarily a depiction of physical reality.

path to publication

1514 Copernicus privately circulated an outline of his thesis on planetary motion.

• 1541 After being urged by friends, Copernicus sent his manuscript of De revolutionibus to be printed.

• 1542 Rheticus helped shepherd the book through the press in Nuremberg.

• December 1542 Copernicus suffered a stroke and the left side of his body was paralyzed.

• 1543 Without Copernicus’ consent, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium was published with a preface written by Andreas Osiander

• 24 May 1543 Copernicus died in Frombork and he was buried in the local cathedral.

scientific instruments

referred to tools used primarily for astronomical, mathematical, and navigational purposes. These instruments were vital for timekeeping, star observation, and practical applications like navigation and agriculture.

Astrolabe

The astrolabe is a historical scientific instrument used primarily during the Middle Ages for astronomy, navigation, and timekeeping. Originating in ancient Greece and developed further by Islamic scholars, it became widely used in Europe from the 8th to the 15th centuries.

orerry

An orrery is a mechanical model that illustrates the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons in the Solar System, typically according to the heliocentric model. These devices are usually driven by clockwork mechanisms, with a globe representing the Sun at the center and planets positioned at the ends of rotating arms