condensed slide deck flashcards

Anatomical Nomenclature

refers to the standardized terminology used to describe the locations, relationships, and movements of body structures.

It ensures precise and universal communication in healthcare and scientific fields.

Anatomical Terms Standardized

terms used to describe the body’s structures,

Eponyms

A person or thing after whom or after which a town, city, disease, etc. is named

plasma membrane

• selective barrier that for passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste 

  • double layer of phospholipids

cytosol

Semifluid substance

prokayrotic cells

• are characterized by having

  • No nucleus

  • Nucleoid: DNA’s location

  • No membrane-bound organelles

cytoplasm

bound by the plasma membrane

in prokaryotic cells

eukaryotic cells

• DNA in a nucleus (nuclear envelope)

• Membrane-bound organelles

• Cytoplasm

• much larger than prokaryotic cells

smooth er

• Synthesizes lipids

• Metabolizes carbohydrates

• Detoxifies drugs and poisons

• Stores calcium ions

rough er

Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)

Distributes transport vesicles

transport vesicles

proteins surrounded by membranes

functions of golgi Apparatus

• Modifies products of the ER

• Manufactures certain macromolecules

• Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

flattened membranous sacs

cisternae

lysosomal enzymes

• hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids

phagocytosis

engulf another cell; food vacuole

autophagy

enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules

lysosomes

Digestive Compartments

Golgi apparatus

Shipping and Receiving Center

mitchondria has a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into

cristae

mitchondria

Chemical Energy Conversion

Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in

mitchondrial matrix

Cristae present a large surface area for

enzymes that synthesize ATP

cytoskeleton

a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell

Roles of the Cytoskeleton:

• support the cell and maintain its shape

• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility

• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails” provided by the cytoskeleton

myosin

• in microfilaments for cellular motility

microfilaments

• solid rods about 7 nm in diameter, built as a twisted double chain of actin subunits

Microtubules control the beating of

cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells

basal body

anchors the cilium or flagellum

Cilia and flagella share

A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane

Dynein

motor protein, which drives the bending movements of a cilium or flagellum

Kartagener’s Syndrome

 rare genetic disorder characterized by defects in the structure or function of cilia, the tiny hair-like structures responsible for movement in various tissues. 

at tight junctions

membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

desmosomes

(anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets

gap junctions

(communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

selective permeability

the plasma membrane exhibits this

 allowing some substances to cross it more easily than others

amphipathic molecules

• hydrophobic & hydrophilic

fluid mosaic model:

a fluid structure with a “mosaic” of various proteins embedded in it

Bioenergetics

is the study of how organisms manage their energy resources

Metabolic pathway:

begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product

metabolism

 totality of an organism’s chemical reactions

Metabolic pathway:

• begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product

  • Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme

catabolic pathways

• release energy 

  • breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds

  • Cellular respiration, the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen

energy coupling

the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

cell does three types of work

• Chemical

• Transport

• Mechanical

ATP powers cellular work by

coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions

substrate

The specific molecule upon which an enzyme acts, undergoing a chemical change during the reaction.

product

The molecule(s) that are formed as a result of the enzymatic reaction.

catalyst

A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed or permanently altered in the process.

activation energy

The minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to proceed.

Denature:

 The process by which a protein, such as an enzyme, loses its specific structure and function due to external factors like heat, pH, or chemicals.

anabolic pathways

• consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones

  • synthesis of protein from amino acids is an example of anabolism

Nutritional Sciences

• is the study of food, nutrients, and their biochemical processing in the body, as well as their relationship to health and disease. 

Micronutrients

• are essential nutrients that the body needs in small amounts to support vital physiological functions, growth, and overall health. 

 vitamins (e.g., vitamin C, vitamin D) and minerals

• which play critical roles in processes like energy production, immune function, bone health, and enzyme activity. 

Macronutrients

• are nutrients required in large quantities that provide energy, including fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.

micronutrients

such as vitamins and minerals, are needed in smaller amounts but are equally essential for overall health.

Disaccharides:

Two monosaccharides linked (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose)

Monosaccharides:

Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).

Polysaccharides:

Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

carbohydrates

are organic molecules composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in the general formula (CH₂O)n. They are the primary source of energy in most organisms and play vital roles in structural and metabolic processes.

energy source

Glucose is a key fuel for cellular respiration.

Energy Storage:

Glycogen (animals) and starch (plants).

Structural Roles:

Cellulose in plants and chitin in insects.

cell signaling

 Glycoproteins and glycolipids involved in communication.

Glycolysis:

Breakdown of glucose to produce ATP.

Gluconeogenesis:

Formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

Glycogenesis:

Synthesis of glycogen for storage.

Glycogenolysis:

Breakdown of glycogen into glucose.

Triglycerides

Glycerol backbone with three fatty acids (main energy storage form).

Phospholipids

Major components of cell membranes (e.g., phosphatidylcholine).

sterols

Include cholesterol and steroid hormones.

waxes

Long-chain fatty acids linked to alcohols.

energy storage

Provide 9 kcal/gram, more energy-dense than carbohydrates.

Cell Membrane Structure:

Phospholipids form lipid bilayers.

Insulation & Protection:

Cushions organs and maintains body temperature.

Signaling Molecules:

 Steroid hormones and prostaglandins.

20 amino acids

are the building blocks of all proteins in the human body

tissues

• Groups of cells similar in structure that perform common or related function

histology

• Study of tissues

four basic tissues types

• epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue

Epithelial tissue (epithelium)

• is a sheet of cells that covers body surfaces or cavities

Covering and lining epithelia

• On external and internal surfaces (example: skin)

Glandular epithelia

Secretory tissue in glands (example: salivary glands)

main functions epithelial cell

protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception

Specialized epithelium forms secretory organs like

sweat glands and thyroid glands.

Epithelial tissue has five distinguishing characteristics:

1.  Polarity

2.  Specialized contacts

3.  Supported by connective tissues

4.  Avascular, but innervated

5.  Regeneration

Apical surface,

• upper free side, is exposed to surface or cavity

microvilli

Most apical surfaces are smooth, but some have specialized fingerlike projections called

basal surface

• lower attached side, faces inwards toward body

basal lamina,

• an adhesive sheet that holds basal surface of epithelial cells to underlying cells

reticula lamina

• Deep to basal lamina

• Consists of network of collagen fibers

basement membrane

• Made up of basal and reticular lamina

• Reinforces epithelial sheet

• Resists stretching and tearing

• Defines epithelial boundary

• Lateral contacts include:

• Tight junctions

• Desmosomes

avascular but intervvated

• No blood vessels are found in epithelial tissue

  • Must be nourished by diffusion from underlying connective tissues

• Epithelia are supplied by nerve fibers, however

tissue regeneration

is the process by which damaged or lost tissues are replaced by new cells, restoring function and structure. It can occur naturally or be enhanced through medical interventions.

Complete Regeneration

• Tissue is fully restored to its original structure and function (e.g., liver regeneration)

Fibrosis (Scar Formation) –

•  Fibrotic tissue replaces damaged tissue, leading to loss of function (e.g., heart tissue after a heart attack).

Cellular Regeneration:

Cells proliferate to replace lost tissue (e.g., skin healing).