Chapter 3 "Power Players"

What are the four power players on the LSAT?

Must, cannot, could, and not necessarily.

Why are power players so important in arguments?

Arguments are made or broken by how certain you are that the conclusion has to be true.

What are certainty power players?

Must and cannot.

What are possibility power players?

Could and not necessarily.

What does MUST mean on the LSAT?

MUST means 100% certain: always, every single time, no exceptions.

What does CANNOT mean on the LSAT?

CANNOT means 0% possible: never, impossible, no way.

What does COULD mean on the LSAT?

COULD means possible: can, there's a chance, maybe, or not impossible.

What does NOT NECESSARILY mean on the LSAT?

NOT NECESSARILY means not must: not guaranteed, could be an exception, or does not have to happen.

Why are MUST conclusions easy to attack?

MUST conclusions have a huge burden of proof because any reasonable loophole offering an alternative can invalidate the conclusion.

Why are CANNOT conclusions easy to attack?

CANNOT conclusions have a massive burden of proof because even a remote possibility can unravel the claim.

Why are COULD conclusions easier to prove?

To prove COULD, you only need premises that let something be a possibility.

Why are NOT NECESSARILY conclusions easier to prove?

To prove NOT NECESSARILY, you only need a premise showing that something does not have to happen.

What does it mean if an LSAT sentence gives no uncertainty indicator?

If the sentence does not specify uncertainty, it is claiming certainty.

What range does COULD cover?

COULD covers 1% to 100% likely: everything except 0% impossible.

What range does NOT NECESSARILY cover?

NOT NECESSARILY covers 0% to 99% likely: everything except 100% must.

What kind of premises do certainty conclusions usually need?

Certainty conclusions almost always require certainty premises to be valid.

What is the author’s job when making any argument?

The author's job is to prove the conclusion necessarily true, 100%.

What should you do with the premises when looking for loopholes?

Keep the premises true and attack the gaps between them.

What is the rule for gaps between premises?

Any gap between premises is an opportunity for a loophole.

What should you assume about LSAT stimuli when finding loopholes?

Assume the stimulus is not giving you the full story; the part it "forgets" to tell you is the loophole.

Why are possibility conclusions hard to disprove?

A loophole has to make the possibility conclusion impossible.

What are truthiness indicators?

True and false.

Why do true and false matter with power players?

The LSAT tests combinations like must be true, could be true, cannot be true, not necessarily true, must be false, could be false, and cannot be false.

What does equivalence tell us?

Equivalence tells us which power-player true/false pairs mean the same thing.

What is a key example of equivalence?

Not necessarily false means the same thing as could be true.

What does negation do to power players?

Negation adds or subtracts a "not" from a power player.

Why is NOT NECESSARILY TRUE the negation of MUST BE TRUE?

NOT NECESSARILY means not must, so not must be true is the negation of must be true

What is the power players gameplan?

Notice power players, remember how hard MUST and CANNOT are to prove, remember how easy COULD and NOT NECESSARILY are to prove, and translate confusing wording with the power players charts.