Unit 6: Environmental, Political, and Societal Challenges

Environmental challenges

Conflicts and problems between human activities and natural systems, such as pollution, ecological damage, climate change, and resource shortages.

Pollution

The entry of harmful substances into air, water, or soil beyond the environment’s ability to naturally clean itself, harming health and ecosystems.

Environmental self-purification capacity

An ecosystem’s natural ability to break down or absorb pollutants; pollution becomes serious when emissions exceed this capacity.

Smog (haze)

A form of air pollution caused by the buildup of fine particles and emissions (industry, vehicle exhaust) combined with unfavorable weather conditions; not ordinary fog.

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5)

Tiny airborne particles often emphasized in haze discussions; they can enter the lungs and negatively affect the respiratory system.

Coal-fired power and heating

Burning coal for electricity and winter heating; often identified as a major source of air pollution and greenhouse-gas emissions in China.

Water pollution

Contamination of rivers, lakes, or groundwater that threatens drinking water safety and also affects irrigation, fisheries, and urban water supply.

Upstream–downstream responsibility

A cause-and-effect chain in which upstream discharge harms downstream communities, useful for discussing how responsibility should be shared.

Soil degradation

Decline in soil quality (including pollution and deterioration) that can threaten food safety and reduce ecosystem stability.

Waste and plastic pollution

A system problem tied to consumption, disposal, and treatment; goes beyond “don’t litter” to include recycling systems and limits on single-use plastics.

Single-use products

Disposable items used once and thrown away; often criticized for increasing waste and plastic pollution.

Population aging

A rising share of older people in the population; can reduce the labor force and raise pension and healthcare demand, increasing fiscal and family caregiving pressure.

Circular economy

An approach that reduces waste by keeping materials in use through reuse, recycling, and remanufacturing—turning “waste” into “resources.”

Resource pressure

Growing strain on water, land, and energy due to population growth, industrialization, and urbanization; often shows up as tighter allocation, higher costs, and more conflict.

Climate change (global warming)

A global-scale issue driven by greenhouse gases that raises average temperatures and increases risks such as extreme weather, sea-level change, and ecosystem disruption.

Greenhouse gas emissions

Heat-trapping gases released especially from fossil-fuel use; they drive global warming and climate-related risks to agriculture, infrastructure, and public health.

Carbon peak (2030 target)

China’s stated goal to reach a maximum level of carbon emissions before 2030, after which emissions should decline.

Carbon neutrality (2060 target)

China’s stated goal to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2060, balancing remaining emissions with removals or offsets.

Paris Agreement

A major international climate agreement under which countries discuss and set emission-reduction commitments and cooperation.

UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)

A UN multilateral framework for international negotiations on climate action, including commitments, technology support, and funding discussions.

Environmental justice (equity)

The idea that environmental risks and protection costs are not evenly shared; lower-income or vulnerable groups may face greater exposure and fewer resources to protect themselves.

Sustainable development

Meeting current needs without reducing future generations’ ability to meet their needs; emphasizes long-term solutions rather than short-term fixes.

Multi-level cooperation

A sustainability framework that involves individuals, schools/communities, businesses, and governments working together rather than relying only on personal “awareness.”

Energy efficiency

Doing the same work with less energy (e.g., better buildings, upgraded factory equipment, improved transport), reducing costs and emissions per unit of output.

Renewable energy (wind/solar)

Energy sources that can reduce reliance on fossil fuels; China is often described as a major producer and installer of wind and solar capacity.

Energy transition

A gradual shift from coal, oil, and gas to cleaner energy systems; often involves trade-offs such as costs, technology bottlenecks, and job transitions.

High-speed rail (HSR)

A transport investment often mentioned in China’s sustainability efforts, described as reducing reliance on air travel for some trips and supporting lower-carbon mobility.

Waste sorting system (garbage classification)

A process that improves recycling efficiency: sorting at source → separate transport → sorting/processing (recycling/composting/incineration/landfill) → reentry into the market.

Landfill and incineration

Two common disposal methods that can relieve waste volume but create pressure and trade-offs (space, emissions), reinforcing the need for better sorting and recycling.

Policy tools

Government measures that align personal choices with public goals; commonly grouped into regulations, economic incentives, and information/education.

Regulations and standards

Rules such as emission limits or plastic bans that set enforceable requirements for pollution control and environmental protection.

Economic incentives (taxes/subsidies)

Financial tools (e.g., subsidies for clean energy or fees on high pollution) used to encourage greener behavior and investment.

Information disclosure and education

Making pollution data public and promoting environmental education/media communication to improve transparency, trust, and compliance.

Green credit policy

A finance-oriented approach that uses tools like tax preferences, subsidies, or preferential loans to encourage green investment and reduce environmental harm from financial activity.

Carbon trading system

A market mechanism where entities buy/sell emission allowances to meet reduction targets; low emitters can sell extra allowances, while high emitters must buy more.

Cap-and-trade controversy

Concerns that carbon markets may face fraud/manipulation, unstable reduction effects, or disproportionate impacts on low-income groups.

13th Five-Year Plan (2016–2020)

China’s national planning period emphasizing more sustainable and innovative development; often cited targets include energy intensity and carbon-intensity reductions.

Made in China 2025

An industrial strategy aiming to upgrade China into a high-tech manufacturing power (e.g., IT, robotics, aerospace, clean energy); also associated with international controversy.

Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)

A large-scale infrastructure and connectivity initiative across Asia, Europe, and Africa; praised for growth and criticized over debt sustainability, transparency, and geopolitical impacts.

Public affairs

Issues that affect most of society (e.g., environmental governance, city planning, public health) and require shared rules, coordination, and resource allocation.

Policy controversy drivers

Why public policies spark debate: conflicts of interest, value differences (growth vs. ecology), and lack of trust/communication.

Information asymmetry

A situation where the public lacks full or reliable information (e.g., unclear data or weak communication), which can reduce trust and intensify policy disputes.

Government roles in governance

Common roles include making rules, providing public services (transit, sewage treatment), enforcing laws (inspections/penalties), and guiding the public through education and information platforms.

Civic participation

Public involvement beyond voting, such as community meetings, volunteering, writing to agencies, online discussion, NGO action, and media oversight.

Trade disputes and tariffs

International conflicts where countries impose additional taxes on imports; notes cite long-term friction such as U.S.–China tariff escalations and related uncertainty.

Intellectual property theft

An allegation often appearing in trade-dispute contexts, referring to stealing proprietary technology or commercial secrets.

Forced technology transfer

A trade-related complaint that foreign companies may be pressured to share technology as a condition for market access or investment.

Cyber espionage

Using the internet to steal confidential information from individuals, companies, or governments; frequently discussed as a major security and competitiveness risk.

Urbanization

Population movement toward big cities that brings jobs and opportunities but can also increase housing costs, traffic congestion, and pressure on public services.

Gaokao

China’s national college entrance examination, often described as highly competitive and a major factor shaping educational pressure and future opportunities.