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Arguments in philosophy
A sequence of statements, intended to support one or more conclusions The truth of the premises gives you a reason to believe the conclusion
Premises
Statements that are simply asserted without proof in the context of the present argument.
Conclusion
The side of the argument leads to the main point and is supported by premises.
Validity
An argument can only be valid If Its premises entails to a conclusion. It's impossible for the conclusion to be false.
Example of a Valid argument
If it is raining, then the streets are wet. It's raining. Therefore, the streets are wet.
By logic, raining makes the street wet.
Invalidity
An argument can only be Invalid If Its premises does not entail to the conclusion, thus, making the conclusion false.
Example of a Invalid argument
If it is raining, then the streets are wet. The streets are wet. Therefore, It's raining.
It could be a construction. A movie play about flooding. It doens't have to be rain for the streets to be wet.
Soudness
The premises are true and the conclusion is true therefore, must be valid.
The argument is valid and their premises are true.
Sound Argument Examples
All rabbits are mammals. Bugs Bunny is a rabbit. Therefore, Bugs Bunny is a mammal.
Unsoundness
An argument is unsound when the argument is invalid, or if at least one of the premises is false.
Example of Unsound argument
All pigs can fly. Pinky is a pig. Therefore Pinky can fly.
Pigs can't fly by logic, so It makes Premise 1: False. The argument is still valid, however.
Formal Validity
When an argument is an instance of a scheme all of whose instances are valid, the argument is said to be formally valid.
Modus Tollens
If p, then q Not q Therefore not p
Modus Ponens
If p then q p Therefore q
Disjunctive Syllogism
Either p or q It is not the case that p Therefore q
Hypothetical Syllogism
If p then q If q then r If p then r
Contraposition
If p then q If it is not the case that q, then it is not the case that p
What is the Sorites Paradox?
This reasoning leads to the absurd conclusion that no number of objects is something indistinguishable from the other.
What makes a good argument?
Acceptability: Is your argument logical and a reasonable one?
Relevance: Are your arguments relevant?
Sufficiency: Is there sufficient evidence?
It is important for someone to accept the premises first before the conclusion. If the conclusion is doubted, then the premises did nothing to support the conclusion.
Demonstrative Arguments
Arguments that aim to be valid.
It entails Its conclusion
Generate an argument where It leads an entailment to the conclusion from its premises.
Includes proof. The conclusion is supported and entailed
Non demonstrative Arguments
Premises entail somewhat of the conclusion. Premises can doubt the conclusion but may still be valid.
Inductive Argument
Started with a particular observation to a generalized claim. Tactically relies on the idea that the particulars are a guide to the general. Typically, Hypothetical.
Inference to Best Explanation
The offered premise is the best available, then we are justified in believing the conclusion.
Euthyphro
Socrates and Euthyphro are both on trial, Euthyphro prosecuting his father who killed an employee for having killed an enslaved person, and Euthyphro is confident hes acting piously/righteously, so Socrates is asking him what piety/righteousness is to him.
Euthyphro's Dilenma
If something is loved by the gods because it is pious, or pious because It’s loved by the gods.
Divine Command Theory
Morally required/forbidden actions are required because of god's commands, permissible actions are those where god neither commands nor forbids.
Cultural Relativism
The practice of judging a culture by its own standards. Proposes that what is ethical is relative to, or depends on cultural attitude.
Theory of Right Action
Explains why things are wrong/permissible/required that leads to ethical values.
Consequentialism
Rightness/wrongness of an action is determined only by its effects on the world. Try to avoid the worst case scenario.
Utilitarianism
The principle of Utility: Ought to do what action best maximizes happiness and minimizes unhappiness.
Principle of Asceticism
a practice where one gets rid of worldly pleasures and focuses on thinking, particularly for religious or spiritual purposes (e.g. Buddhist Monk)
Measures of pleasure and pain (Utilitarianism)
Its intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, its nearness and remoteness, fecundity (its chance of being followed by sensations of the same kind) purity (its chance of not being followed by opposite sensations), and its extent (the number of persons to whom it extends or whos affected by it)
the rights objection (utilitarianism)
charges utilitarianism with being overly permissive. To maximise the sum total of well-being, utilitarianism might be thought to allow infringing upon others’ rights or violating other apparent moral constraints.
The demandingness objection (utilitarianism)
claims that utilitarianism is overly demanding because it requires excessive self-sacrifice from us in order to help others.
The equality objection (utilitarianism)
holds that utilitarianism is not sufficiently concerned with distributive justice and the value of equality.
The mere means objection (utilitarianism)
claims that utilitarianism treats people as “mere means” to the greater good rather than as ends in themselves
The separateness of persons' objection (utilitarianism)
charges utilitarianism with aggregating well-being in an unacceptable way, neglecting the significance of the boundaries between individuals.
The alienation objection (utilitarianism)
alleges that the moral reasons posited by utilitarianism are troublingly cold and aloof, alienating us from the particular people and projects that (rightly) matter to us
The special obligations objection (utilitarianism)
holds that utilitarianism is excessively impartial, and does not sufficiently account for the special obligations that we have to our friends and family.
Singer
Overemphasizes food insecurity and population size. Poverty in general.
Principle of Assistance
If It's in our power to prevent something seriously from bad happening without hereby sacrificing anything of moral importance, we ought to do it.
Susan Wolf
She believes there are 2 types of moral saints; the loving saint, and the rational saint. Both have lives organized around satisfying the demands of mortality, though they relate differently to those demands.
Rational Saint
Wants what we want but gives it up of our commitment to morality. They are not enjoying doing so, just for the sake of obligation.
Loving Saint
Being exceptionally morally good is what makes him happy. Enjoys and dedicate their life to kindness.
Deontology
An ethical theory that says actions are good or bad according to a clear set of rules. Actions that align with these rules are ethical, while actions that don't, arent.
Prima Facie Duty
At first glance duty. A duty that is binding or obligatory, other things being equal.
Defeasible.
Fidelity
Reperation
If I have wronged you in the past that gives me a duty in the present to make it up to you, If you steal you owe compensation
Gratitude
Responding to other people's duties of past conduct, going above and beyond, and repaying the favor when someone else is in need.
Justice
Fairness and distribution, duty to contribute to forming and maintaing fair distribution, about distributing things according to merit so that good persons get more and bad persons get less.
Beneficence
In position to help people, confer on them a benefit or protection from harm. Singer's views.
Self improvement
Make yourself a better person over time
Non-maleficence
A duty not to harm
Note 
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