AP Euro Unit 9 - WWI Reading Guides

What was Otto von Bismarck’s primary goal for Germany’s foreign policy?

To keep the peace by keeping France diplomatically isolated and without allies + managing the power vacuum in the Balkans created by the waning Ottoman Empire.

What fateful move did Emperor William II make regarding Russia?

Refused to renew the non-aggression pact with Russia. This pushed Russia to form a military alliance with France, achieving Bismarck’s greatest fear (two-front threat).

What was the naval arms race?

The rivalry between Germany + Britain. Germany’s decision to build a massive fleet of “dreadnoughts” (large battleships) challenged British naval supremacy + pushed Britain to seek alliances with France and Russia.

How did militarism and nationalism contribute to the war?

Leaders and citizens saw was as a legitimate test of national power. Widespread patriotic nationalism made people more committed to national interests than to international peace.

Why did some leaders see war as a distraction?

They hoped the outbreak of war would create national unity and suppress internal domestic conflicts and social revolutions.

What was the spark of WWI?

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, by Gavrilo Princip (Serbian nationalist).

Why did the Balkan conflict escalate into a World War?

(Complex web of alliances) - Austria declared war on Serbia; Russia (Serbian ally) mobilized; Germany (Austrian ally) then declared war on Russia and France.

Schlieffen Plan

Germany’s military strategy to avoid a two-front war by quickly knocking France out of the war via a “lighting attack” through neutral Belgium before turning to fight Russia.

What caused Great Britain to officially enter the war?

The German violation of Belgian neutrality during the execution of the Schlieffen Plan.

Why was WWI considered a total war?

Involved the mobilization of entire populations/economies, not just armies + governments revoked civil liberties to support the war effort.

What caused the stalemate on the western front?

Trench warfare - defensive weapons were more effective than offensive tactics, leading to a 400-mile line of trenches from the Belgian coast to the Swiss frontier.

What was the goal of the Battle of the Somme (1916)?

To break the German lines through a week-long artillery bombardment - resulted in massive slaughter with very little ground gained.

How did the eastern front differ from the western front?

War of movement rather than stalemate + Germany won major early victories at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes, eventually Occupying vast Russian territories.

How did the alliance systems change/expand during the war?

Italy: Switched sides to join the Triple Entente (Allies) for promises of Austrian territory.

Ottoman Empire: Joined the Central Powers (Germany/Austria).

Bulgaria: Joined the Central Powers to settle scores with Serbia.

Armenian Genocide (1915)

Ottoman government ordered the mass deportation and murder of about 1 million Armenians, sparked by some Armenian welcoming Russian “liberators.”

T.E. Lawrence of Arabia

British officer who led Arab tribes in a guerrilla war against the Ottoman Turks, helping Hussein (the Sharif of Mecca) rebel against the Sultan.

Why did the U.S. enter the war in 1917?

Primarily due to Germany’s resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and general sympathy for the Triple Entente.

What helped tip the scale for the Allies in 1917-1918?

The industrial capacity and fresh manpower of the U.S - while the Central Powers were exhausted by the war of attrition, the U.S. provided a massive psychological and material boost.

What is the concept of total war?

A conflict where the entire resources and population of a nation are mobilized for the war effort, leading to increased state bureaucracy and impact on civilian life.

How did the national leaders intervene in the economy?

Established rationing programs, mobilized soldiers/armaments, created state ministries to oversee production + care for war victims.

What was the “German Plan” for the economy?

Under Walter Rathenau, Germany rationed food by physical need and produced substitutes for scarce war supplies.

What was the role of the British Ministry of Munitions (1915)?

Organized private industry for war, allocated labor, and set wage/price rates.

How did the war change the status of labor unions?

Unions cooperated with governments on workplace rules and production in exchange for a real voice in important government decisions.

How did the role of women change during the war?

Women became highly visible in public roles and served as nurses/auxiliaries at the front, changing attitudes about gender roles.

In what way did European society become more “egalitarian” during the war?

Greater equality was reflected in full employment, the sharing of hardships, and the distribution of scarce rations based on physical need.

How did governments bolster popular support early in the war?

Through patriotic nationalism, rigorous censorship, and crude propaganda.

What were two major internal uprisings in 1916?

• Berlin: Radical socialist Karl Liebnecht led anti-war protests.

• Dublin: The Easter Rising - armed republican militias proclaimed an independent Irish Republic

What stiffened the resolve of the Allied Powers in 1917?

The promised arrival of fresh troops from the U.S.

What led to the collapse of morale in the Central Powers?

Political dissatisfaction, ethnic conflicts among nationalities, and exhaustion among the Austrian-Hungarian people and army.

What was the progressive bloc of 1915?

A group of political parties calling for a new government responsible to the Duma instead of the Tsar.

Why did Rasputin gain influence over the Tsarina?

He was her court favorite + advisor while Nicholas II was away at the front leading the army.

What triggered the February Revolution (1917)?

Severe strain from WWII; the Tsar ordered the army to repress protesters, but the soldiers joined the crowd instead.

What was the immediate result of the February Revolution?

Tsar Nicholas II abdicated and a Provisional Government was established.

What crucial mistake did the Provisional Government make?

Despite the people being sick of fighting, they kept Russia in WWI.

What was Army Order No. 1?

An order by the Petrograd Soviet that stripped officers of authority and gave power to elected committees of common soldiers, leading to a collapse in army discipline.

Alexander Karensky

Leader of the Provisional Government who refused to confiscate large landholdings for peasants, fearing it would cause the army to disintegrate.

What were Lenin’s three central ideas for revolution?

Violent revolution is necessary, peasants could replace the traditional working class, a highly disciplined worker’s party is required.

What was Lenin’s famous slogan to gain popular support?

“Bread, Land, and Peace”

How did the Kornilov Affair help the Bolsheviks?

In the face of a rightist counter-revolutionary threat, the Bolsheviks re-emerged and Karensky lost his remaining credit with the army.

Leon Trotsky

Brilliant orator and radical Marxist who executed the Bolshevik seizure of power/later led the Red Army.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)

Peace treaty with Germany that ended Russia’s involvement in WWI, allowing Lenin to focus on absolute power at home.

War Communism

Harsh system of centralized controls: nationalized banks/industries, outlawed private enterprise, and forced rationing.

Red Terror (1918-1920)

Use of the Cheka (secret police) to imprison/execute “class enemies” to establish the Communist government as the central power.

What was the result of Germany’s final 1918 spring offensive?

Failure - Despite coming within 35 miles of Paris, overextended German forces were unable to break through.

When did the WWI armistice go into effect?

November 11, 1918

What happened to the Austro-Hungarian Empire after the war?

It perished - its territory was carved into independent states like Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and a larger Poland, Romania, and Italy.

Who were the Spartacists?

Radical Communists led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg who tried to seize control of the German government in Jan 1919.

What were three key elements of Wilson’s Fourteen Points?

1. Open diplomacy.

2. Reduction in armaments.

3. Establishment of a League of Nations.

Who were the Big Three at the peace conference?

U.S, Great Britain, and France.

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia were excluded.

What was the War Guilt Clause (Article 231)

Declaration that Germany (with Austria) was solely responsible for the war + had to pay reparations for all civilian damages.

Why did the U.S. never join the League of Nations?

The U.S. Senate rejected the treaty, refusing to ratify it or form a defensive alliance with France and Great Britain.

Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)

Agreement where Britain and France decided to administer Ottoman Empire lands under the Mandate System.

What did the Balfour Declaration (1917) announce?

Britain favored a “National Home for the Jewish People” in Palestine.

Mustafa Kemal

Leader of the Turkish movement that overthrew the Sultan and refused to acknowledge the Allied dismemberment of Turkey.

What was a significant human cost for German civilians?

Nearly 10% of German civilians were direct victims of the war, and the new government struggled to care for them.

How did radical right-wing parties (like Nazis and Fascists) rise to power?

They manipulated popular feelings of loss and resentment to undermine fragile parliamentary governments.