gender, ethnicity, class, age inequality

Gender & Work

Liberal and Marxist feminists argue workplace inequality is a product of both social norms and economic systems. Oakley highlights early gender role socialisation, leading to horizontal segregation, while Benston and Barrett view women as a reserve army of labour—employed during shortages, then pushed back to domestic roles. The glass ceiling, as theorised by Davidson, shows structural barriers to women's advancement in senior positions.

Gender & Work Statistics

Women earn 14.3% less than men in the UK (ONS, 2023) and only 8 out of 100 FTSE CEOs are women (2024), showing vertical segregation and limited representation.

Gender & Education

Liberal feminists argue girls' success reflects societal progress. Arnot points to improved female achievement, while Kelly and Colley show that subject choice remains gendered. Radical feminists argue the hidden curriculum and teacher labelling reinforce patriarchal norms despite academic gains.

Gender & Education Statistics

Girls outperform boys at GCSE/A-Level (JCQ, 2023), but only 16% of A-Level Computer Science entries are female — reflecting gendered career pipelines.

Ethnicity & Employment

Weberian theory suggests ethnic minorities suffer status and party exclusion, limiting labour market access. Barron & Norris describe a dual labour market where BAME workers are often found in insecure, low-status jobs. Rex and Tomlinson argue this exclusion creates a marginalised underclass.

Ethnicity & Employment Statistics

Black workers are 2x more likely to be in zero-hours contracts (TUC, 2023). Less than 10% of NHS senior leadership roles are held by ethnic minorities (NHS, 2023).

Ethnicity & CJS

Neo-Marxists like Hall et al. argue the moral panic around Black criminality serves ideological purposes, while the Macpherson Report labelled the Met Police as institutionally racist. Interactionists like Cicourel explain how stereotypes influence arrests and sentencing.

Ethnicity & CJS Statistics

Black people are 7x more likely to be stopped and searched (UK Gov, 2022). Black men make up a disproportionately high % of UK prison population.

Class & Education

Marxists argue education reproduces class inequality. Althusser states schools serve the ideological state apparatus; Bourdieu links underachievement to cultural capital. Interactionists like Becker show how teacher expectations can disadvantage working-class students.

Class & Education Statistics

7% attend private school, but make up 40% of Oxbridge admissions (Sutton Trust, 2023). FSM students underperform at GCSE compared to national average.

Class & Health

Material deprivation theorists like Townsend show how poverty contributes to poorer health. Wilkinson highlights psychosocial effects of inequality. The Black Report (1980) showed stark differences in health outcomes by class, which remain today.

Class & Health Statistics

People in the poorest areas live 10-15 years fewer in good health (Public Health England). Mental illness rates are higher in lower-income households.

Age & Employment

Marxist theorists see young people as a reserve army of labour (Braverman). Functionalists like Parsons argue youth is a transitional stage with lower rewards. Older workers face age discrimination, with early retirement and redundancy becoming more common.

Age & Employment Statistics

Youth (under-25s) dominate the gig economy (Deliveroo, Uber), often with no security. Over-55s are most likely to face long-term unemployment after redundancy.

Age & Media

Cohen's theory of moral panics shows how young people are vilified (folk devils), while Sontag's "double standard of ageing" shows older women face harsher media judgement. Postmodernists like Blaikie suggest older people are reclaiming identity post-retirement.

Gender & Housing

Feminist perspectives argue that women face housing inequalities due to lower income, dependency, and domestic abuse risks. Women fleeing violence often become reliant on social housing. Radical feminists argue that patriarchal structures contribute to housing insecurity for women leaving abusive partners.

Gender & Political Representation

Liberal feminists argue that underrepresentation in politics is due to structural barriers, such as selection bias and lack of support for women. Radical feminists claim male-dominated political culture marginalises women's voices. Intersectional feminists highlight how race and class compound exclusion from formal power.

Ethnicity & Housing

Weberians argue that ethnic minorities face status-based exclusion from quality housing. Marxists point to structural disadvantage linked to class and race. Discrimination in the private rental sector and institutional barriers to home ownership create long-term housing inequality.

Ethnicity & Political Representation

Weber's concept of 'party' shows how BAME individuals can be excluded from formal power structures. Ethnic minority voices are often marginalised in UK politics, with structural and cultural barriers limiting access to elected positions.

Class & Housing

Marxist theory argues that capitalist systems prioritise profit over housing needs. Working-class families are more likely to live in substandard housing due to low income and limited access to affordable homes. This impacts health, education, and overall life chances.

Class & Political Representation

Class background still shapes political participation and power. Working-class people face barriers such as education, confidence, and social networks. Elite domination of politics supports Gramsci's idea of cultural hegemony, where middle- and upper-class interests dominate policy.

Age & Health

Functionalists view ageing as natural disengagement, while Weberians argue older adults face status loss. Ageism in healthcare results in reduced priority, treatment bias, and lack of preventative care. Feminist theorists add that older women face a double disadvantage due to gendered ageing (Sontag).

Age & Housing

Younger adults face housing insecurity due to low wages and unstable jobs. Postmodern theorists argue young people delay independence due to cultural shifts and economic barriers, leading to a 'boomerang generation' living with parents. Older people may be asset-rich but income-poor.

Youth Crime Narratives

Youth are frequently linked to crime/gang narratives in news media. Older people appear less in mainstream media, often portrayed as frail or dependent.

Homeless Families

In 2022, 60% of homeless families were single mothers (Shelter). Domestic violence is one of the leading causes of women's homelessness (Crisis).

Women in Politics

Women make up ~35% of MPs in 2024, still below parity. Ethnic minority women are even more underrepresented (<5%).

Overcrowded Accommodation

Black African households are 4x more likely to live in overcrowded accommodation than white households (ONS, 2022).

Ethnic Minority MPs

Only 11% of MPs are from ethnic minority backgrounds, despite making up 18% of the UK population (Parliament, 2024).

Substandard Housing

The lowest income households are 3x more likely to live in overcrowded or damp homes (Shelter, 2023). Council housing waitlists have grown by 40% since 2020.

Political Participation Barriers

Only 7% of MPs were educated in state comprehensives and went to non-Russell Group universities. Over 35% of MPs attended private school (Sutton Trust, 2023).

Older Adults in Healthcare

Older adults receive slower cancer referrals and less aggressive treatment. During COVID-19, age was a factor in ICU admission decisions (BMJ, 2021).

Housing Insecurity for Young Adults

Over 60% of 18-29-year-olds still live at home due to unaffordable rents. One in four older people live alone, increasing risk of isolation and mental health issues (Age UK, 2023).