A&PII final questions

after air molecules enter into the oral cavity, they then enter a series of groove-like passageways - the superior, middle, and inferior __

nasal meatuses

what is not a function of the nose?

dried incoming air

what are cartilages of the nose?

lateral nasal cartilages; septal nasal cartilages; alar cartilages

what are the functions of the paranasal sinuses?

serve as a resonating chamber and produce mucus

how does the nose moisten and clean inhaled air before it enters the rest of the respiratory tract?

it traps particulate matter and mucus reduces drying

what are the superior and inferior borders of the pharynx?

nasal cavity and esophagus

what is the epiglottis ?

a large, leaf shaped piece of elastic cartilage that can move up and down like a trap door

what is the solid benefit of not having cartilage between trachea and the esophagus? What is the purpose of the solid c-shaped cartilage rings?

both increases flexibility of the trachea and prevents the tracheal wall from collapsing

what is the path taken by air molecules into and through the bronchial tree?

trachea, carina, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles

location of pleural cavity?

above lung and below parietal pleura

location of the visceral pleura?

between lung and parietal pleura

location of parietal pleura?

between visceral pleura and chest wall

path taken by air molecules as they travel from terminal bronchioles to alveoli?

terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli (terminal: last part of conducting zone, respiratory: 1st part where gas exchanges)

what is the most important muscle that powers your breathing?

diaphragm

the low volume in internal intercostals does what?

increases alveolar pressure and leads to expiration

order of events during inhalation?

lung volume increases causing air to enter the lungs (high volume = low pressure (boyle’s law))

forces that produce the elastic recoil of the thoracic wall and lungs?

• recoil of stretched elastic fibers

• surface tension in alveoli

• passive spring back of thoracic wall

would airflow into alveoli be greater with higher or lower compliance of the lungs? larger or smaller bronchioles?

higher compliance-larger bronchioles (larger = less resistance and more airflow)

what is lung compliance?

how easily lungs can expand with pressure (more compliance = more airflow)

what is the anatomic dead space ?

air remaining in the conducting airways

what is tidal volume?

amount of air in one breath at rest

expiratory reserve volume

additional exhaled air after the tidal volume

residual volume

air remaining after full complete exhalation

Henry’s law

(“henry sinks”) the quantity of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility

Dalton’s law

(“don’t tell me what to do”) the pressure of a specific gas in a mixture (gas individual pressure)

what causes oxygen to enter pulmonary capillaries from alveolar air and to enter tissue cells from systemic capillaries?

the partial pressure difference of oxygen

factors affecting the rates of diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide?

• diffusion distance (shorter distance = faster diffusion)

• available surface area (more area = more diffusion)

• partial pressure difference

how does the partial pressure of atmospheric oxygen changes as altitude changes?

increased altitude causes decreased partial pressure of oxygen (as you rise PO2 dies)

oxygen transport through blood can occur in what way?

dissolved in blood plasma and bound to hemoglobin

what is the most important factor in determining how much oxygen binds to hemoglobin?

partial pressure of oxygen (higher PO2, more oxygen binds)

where is PO2 higher in tissue capillaries? lungs vs tissues

in the lungs; where more O2 binds to hemoglobin

carbon dioxide transport through the blood can occur in the following ways…

• dissolved in the blood plasma

• attached to hemoglobin

• in the form of bicarbonate

where is the concentration of HCO3- higher in blood plasma taken from a systemic artery or a systemic vein?

systemic vein

nerves that convey impulses from the respiratory center to the diaphragm?

phrenic nerves

the basic rhythm of respiration is controlled by:

medullary rhythmicity area (MR area: main rhythm; located in medulla)

pneumotaxic area vs apneustic area

• pneumotaxic area overrides the apneustic area

• apneustic area prolong inspiration

• apneustic area controls the pneumotaxic area

where are the central chemoreceptors of respiration located?

in the medulla oblongata

chemicals stimulating peripheral chemoreceptors?

• hydrogen ions

• carbon dioxide

• oxygen

what is the normal arterial blood PCO2?

about 40 mmHg

what happens to the rate of depth of breathing when the PCO2 becomes elevated?

rate increases, depth increases

how do proteins and bicarbonate ions help maintain the pH of body fluids?

proteins buffer body fluids and bicarbonate ions release H+ to increase acidity

respiratory acidosis

abnormally high carbon dioxide level

respiratory alkalosis

abnormally low carbon dioxide level

the nasal cavity is lined with what type of epithelium?

pseudostratified columnar

sperm production occurs in the:

seminiferous tubules (inside testes)

what do the interstitial cells of leydig do?

produce testosterone

what is the least mature type of spermatogenic cell ?

spermatogonia

in males, the hormone inhibin is produced by the…

sertoli cells (sertoli stops FSH w/ inhibin

the cell produced by the fertilization of the ovum by sperm is called a(n)…

zygote

during spermatogenesis, the cells formed by meiosis II are called…

spermatids

spermatogenesis

creation of sperm cells

spermiogenesis

maturation of sperm cells

the production of testosterone in the interstitial cells of leydig is stimulated by…

lutenizing hormone (think of LH for leydig hormone; stimulates leydig cells to produce testosterone)

the terminal duct carrying semen from the male reproductive system is the…

urethra

what is the doughnut-shaped accessory sex gland that surrounds the upper portion of the urethra in males is the?

prostate gland

what is the pea shaped gland in the male reproductive system ?

bulbourethral gland

the region of a mature sperm cell that contains large numbers of mitochondria to produce atp for locomotion is the…

middle piece of tail (mitochondria - middle)

enzymes used by sperm cells to penetrate an ovum during fertilization are located in the…

acrosome (helps sperm across the egg’s barriers)

testosterone

• anabolic steroid

• stimulates libido

• is responsible for the secondary sex characteristics of males

• it’s feedback inhibits the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus

how long can sperm cells survive, on average, up to in the female reproductive tract?

48 hrs

what is the type of ovarian follicle that ruptures at the time of ovulation?

graafian follicle (graafian: “go”)

fertilization usually occurs where?

uterine (fallopian) tubes (fallopian fun)

what is the external genitalia of the female collectively called?

vulva

hormones that control the menstrual and ovarian cycles of the female?

• GnRH

• FSH

• LH

• Estrogen

what is the hormone that works with estrogen to prepare the endometrium for implantation of a fertilized egg?

progesterone

the rupture of the graafian follicle during ovulation is due to a surge in…

LH (L for “launches the egg”)

what is the structure that separates the uterus from the vagina?

the cervix

what is the initial trigger for the onset of puberty in both males and females?

secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus (GnRH triggers FSH and LH which act on the gonads)

what is the dome-shaped portion of the uterus found superior to the uterine tubes called?

fundus

when is meiosis II completed and the production of secondary oocytes by oogenesis?

after fertilization

hormones that are released by the corpus luteum?

• Progesterone

• Estrogen

• Relaxin

• Inhibin

what does salivary amylase secreted into the oral cavity start the digestion of?

carbohydrates

where does the digestion of proteins into peptides start in?

the stomach

bile is produced by…

hepatocytes in the liver

where does most digestion and absorption occur in?

in the small intestine

the large intestine absorbs:

water, sodium, chloride and vitamins

what do the kidneys do?

• help regulate blood volume

• help to control blood pressure

• secrete erythropoietin

• help control blood pH

the function units of the kidneys are called

nephrons

what is the order of anatomical structures found in the nephron?

glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubules, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubules

where are most glucose molecules reabsorbed in?

proximal convoluted tubules

where does the right kidney sit in comparison to the left kidney due to the position of the liver?

inferior to left kidney

what vessel is present in the arterial pathway but missing from the venous pathway?

segmental

do filtrate and whole blood contain identical constituents?

no

what will renal artery stenosis (abnormally narrow renal arteries) affect on the kidneys be?

causes them to have an inadequate amount of blood flow to the nephrons and decrease the rate of filtration

what is the order of the structure of the filtration membrane from deep to superficial?

fenestrated glomerular capillary endothelial cells, basal lamina, podocytes

secretion happens via:

both passive and active transport

reabsorption moves water and solutes:

from filtrate to blood

what useful substance would be lost in urine if there was no reabsorption in the proximal tubule?

glucose

what is paracellular reabsorption?

occurs when substances pass between adjacent tubular cells

what is transcellular reabsorption?

occurs when substances pass through cells

Intracellular reabsorption

occurs within a cell

extracellular reabsorption

occurs outside the cells

what is the thick ascending limb of the nephron loop mostly permeable to?

ions, such as Na and CI

what happens as filtrate moves down the descending limb of the nephron loop?

it’s concentration increases (water is reabsorbed but solutes remain inside)

what happens if the filtrate concentration is lower than normal at the turn of the nephron loop?

active transport in the thick ascending limb will be less efficient

what is the effect of furosemide (loop diuretic drug) on the quantity of urine produced?

there will be a large amount of urine produced

most common side effects of furosemide?

increased natriuresis (Na loss)

when does a cell preparing to undergo meiosis duplicated its chromosomes?

during interphase

during prophase I of meiosis:

homologous chromosomes stick together in pairs

during what phase of meiosis does recombination occur in?

prophase I