Philosophy Chapter 1

What is philosophy as a discipline?

One of the humanities

What is philosophy as a process?

A penetrating mode of reflection for understanding life’s most important truths.

What is the philosophical method?

The systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers to fundamental questions about reality, morality, and knowledge.

What are fundamental ideas?

Ideas upon which other ideas depend.

What is a fundamental belief?

A belief that supports other beliefs, and the more beliefs it supports the more fundamental it is.

What makes up your “philosophy of life” which informs your thinking and guides your actions?

Fundamental beliefs

What is philosophy’s greatest practical benefit?

It gives us the intellectual wherewithal to improve our lives by improving our philosophy of life.

What comprises a great many false fundamental beliefs and can lead to a misspent or misdirected life, a life less meaningful than it could be?

A faulty philosophy of life

The word philosophy is derived from Greek words meaning?

Love of wisdom

Who said “an unexamined life is not worth living”?

Socrates

What is philosophy’s chief theoretical benefit?

Understanding for its own sake.

What are the four main divisions of philosophy?

Metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic

What is the study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the elemental nature of the universe and the things in it?

Metaphysics

What is the study of knowledge?

Epistemology

What is the study of value including aesthetic and moral value?

Axiology

What is the study of moral value?

Ethics

What is the study of aesthetic value?

Aesthetics

What is the study of correct reasoning

Logic

When asking simple questions about ones views and challenging them to think critically about their basic assumptions?

Socratic method

The idea that if you assume a set of statements is true, and yet you can deduce a false or an absurd statement from it, then the original set of statements as a whole must be false.

Reductio ad absurdum

What were the first philosophers referred to as?

Pre-socratics

Name 3 first notable philosophers

Thales, Empedocles, Parmenides

What is an argument?

A group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others

What is a statement (claim)?

An assertion that something is or is not the case and is therefore the kind of utterance that is either true or false.

In an argument, what is the statement being supported called?

Conclusion

What are the statements supporting the conclusion called that are meant to provide reasons for believing that the conclusion is true?

Premises

How do you locate an argument?

Find its conclusion first, then it’s premises

How to zero in on conclusions and premises?

Keep an eye out for indicator words

What are indicator words?

Words that often tag along with arguments and indicate that a conclusion or premise may be nearby

Do indicator words, guarantee the presence of conclusions and premises? Yes or no.

No

What are the general requirements of a good argument?

1) they must have solid logic. 2) it must have true premises

Intended to give logically conclusive support to their conclusions so that if the premises are true, the conclusion absolutely must be true

Deductive arguments

When a valid deductive argument has true premises is it a good argument or is it a bad argument?

It is a good argument

A good deductive argument is said to be….

Sound

What is a conditional premise?

A premise consisting of a conditional or ‘if-then’ statement, which is actually a compound statement composed of two constituent statements

A conditional statement has two parts. Describe them.

1) The part beginning with ‘if’ which is called the antecedent.

2) The part beginning with ‘then’ which is known as the consequent

What does modus ponens mean?

Affirming the antecedent

What is modus tollens?

Denying the consequent

Are supposed to give probable support to their conclusions

Inductive arguments

A good inductive argument is said to be…

Cogent

What is the argument by analogy called?

Analogical induction

Inference to the best explanation is also called

Abduction

What is an explanation?

Something that states how or why something is the case, it attempts to clarify or elucidate, not offer proof

What is the use of special criteria to sort through the possibilities?

Criteria of adequacy

What are the two types of criteria of adequacy?

Conservativism and simplicity

This criterion says that all things being equal the best explanation or theory is the one that fits best with what is already known or established

Conservativism

This criterion says that other things being equal, the best explanation is the one that is the simplest, that is the one that wrestled the fuse assumptions

Simplicity

What are the five steps that will help someone read philosophy better?

1) approach the text with an open mind.

2) Read, actively and critically

3) Identify the conclusion first, then the premises

4) Outline, paraphrase, or summarize the argument

5) Evaluate the argument and formulate a tentative judgment

What are common but bad arguments?

Fallacies

The misrepresentation of a person’s views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed

Straw man fallacy

Also known as the ‘ad hominem’ fallacy

Appeal to the person fallacy

The rejecting of a statement on the grounds that is comes from a particular person, not because the statement, or claim, itself is false or dubious.

Appeal to the person fallacy

Appeal to the masses, or bandwagon fallacy that argues a claim must be true not because it is backed by good reasons but simply because many people believe it. Somehow there is truth in numbers.

Appeal to popularity

When it applies to arguments that a claim is true or false solely because of its origin - it refers to nonhuman and abstract origins (such as a group of people or a piece of writing) as well as to particular individuals (such as John Smith)

Genetic fallacy

How to refer to nonhuman and abstract origins

Genetic fallacy

Assigning two different ,meanings to the same significant word in an argument. The words is used in one sense in a premise and in a different sense in another place in the argument. The switch in meaning can deceive the reader and disrupt the argument, rendering it invalid or weaker than it would be otherwise.

The fallacy of equivocation

Arguing that either (1) a claim is true because it hasn’t been proven false or (2) a claim is false because it hasn’t been proven true.

The appeal to ignorance

Arguing erroneously that since there are only two alternative to choose from and one of them is unacceptable, the other one must be true.

False dilemma fallacy

Arguing in a circle by trying to prove a conclusions by using that very same conclusion as support.

Begging the question fallacy

Arguing erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitably to other actions resulting in some dire outcome.

Slippery slope fallacy

Arguing erroneously that what can be said of the parts can also be said of the whole

Composition fallacy

Arguing erroneously that what can be said of the whole can be said of the parts.

Division fallacy

Something that makes a statement more likely to be true

Evidence

Denying or resisting evidence that flies in the face of our cherished beliefs. Sometimes ignoring it, or reinterpreting it so that it fits better with our prejudices.

Denying contrary evidence

Seeking out and using only confirming evidence

Confirmation bias

Reasoning for the purpose of supporting a predetermined conclusion, not to uncover the truth.

Motivated reasoning

Relying on evidence not because it’s trustworthy but because it’s memorable or striking, and psychologically available.

The phenomenon of being ignorantly of how ignorant we are

The dunning Kruger effect

How to refer to individual persons

Appeal to the person or ad hominem