STL STUDY PACK ST1

STL 220

Definition of Afrocentricity

Afrocentricity is a manner of thought and action in which African interests, values, and perspectives predominate. It is an exercise in knowledge and a new historical perspective. It places Africa and the interests of Africans at the centre of analysis.

Key principles of Afrocentricity

- Not anti-white – it is anti-oppression

- Not the antithesis of Eurocentrism – seeks to correct the historical record, not replace Eurocentrism

- Not a theory just for the African diaspora – it is for Africans on the continent too

- Provides alternative theoretical and methodological lenses to study the African state

- Promotes epistemic decolonisation – from monoculture of Eurocentric knowledge toward ecology of knowledges (Zondi)

- Based on the premise that there is a collective African consciousness (though critics dispute this)

Historical origins of Afrocentricity

- Cannot be established with certainty

- Linked to slave revolts and Pan-Africanism

- First appeared in print in 1827 in Freedom's Journal (first black US newspaper)

- Marcus Garvey – venerated as an early Afrocentrist

- Gained momentum during Negritude, Pan-Africanism, Black Power (1960s), and Black is Beautiful (1970s)

- Institutionalised at Temple University (the "Temple Circle") – Molefi Asante, C. Tsehloane Keto, Ama Mazama, Theophile Obenga

Significance of Afrocentricity

- Allows Africans to be subjects and agents, not objects, in their own history

- Challenges the Western dogma that Greeks gave the world rationalism

- Reclaims ancient African civilisations as foundational to world civilisation

- Restores self-esteem and identity for African peoples

Eurocentric vs Afrocentric Frameworks

Eurocentric Perspective: views Africa from outside

Afrocentric Perspective: Views Africa from within

Eurocentric Subject position: Africans as objects/passive

Afrocentric Subject position: Africans as subjects/agents

Eurocentric Knowledge production: Universalises European experience

Afrocentric Knowledge production: Centres African experience

Eurocentric Historical narrative: Africa has no history/civilisation

Afrocentric Historical narrative: Africa has rich history and civilisation

Eurocentric Political analysis: Measures African states against European norms

Afrocentric Political analysis: Analyses African states in their own context

Criticism of Afrocentricity

Major critics

- Mary Lefkowitz (Not Out of Africa) – curriculum is "a tissue of myths"

- Arthur Schlesinger – poses a threat to unity

- George Will – "intellectual segregation"

- Stanley Crouch and Anthony Appiah – oppose it as anti-white and essentialist

- Feminist critics – Afrocentrists avoid exposing atrocities against African women

Criticism of Afrocentricity

Other criticisms

- Millenarian – romanticising the past

- No single African consciousness

- Term "Africa" itself is external (a Latin name)

- Curriculum cannot be reconciled into one approach

Afrocentrist responses to criticism

- Critics are Capitulationists (self-hating), Europeanised Loyalists, or Maskers (seeking to please the master)

- Afrocentricity is constructive, not destructive

Theories of the African State

 Modernisation Theory (premise problems and key thinkers)

Premise: African societies are "in the process of becoming modern rational entities" where efficiency and scientific logic replace traditional values.

 

Problems:

- Treats African societies as if they had no history

- Assumes indigenous culture and institutions are obstacles

- Blames internal factors for failure – ignores colonialism, slavery, and neocolonialism

- Leads to Western control over African economies, resources, and leaders

 

Key thinkers: Peter Schwab, Roel van der Veen, Martin Meredith

Theories of the African State

Dependency Theory (premise, problems, and key thinkers)

Premise: External factors (world capitalist system) explain Africa's underdevelopment. Periphery (less developed countries) in permanent dependence on centre (European countries).

 

Problems (Colin Leys):

1. No clear definition of "development"

2. Unclear whether masses suffer from exploitation

3. Theory is far too broad

4. Tends to be economicist

5. Concept of "imperialism" appears only as an "extra"

6. Central unit of analysis is unclear

7. Does not explain why more capital did not accumulate in the Third World

 

Key thinker: Walter Rodney – How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

Theories of the African State

 Statist Theory (premise, key concepts, and problems)

Premise: Focuses on the state as the central actor – African leaders misuse office for personal gain.

 

Key concepts:

- Richard Joseph – "prebendal state" – politics as struggle over scarce resources

- William Reno – "shadow state" – informal patronage system based on rulers' control over resources

- Robert Fatton, Jr. – African state is "hard", not "soft" – used to coordinate ruling class interests

 

Problems:

- Primacy to internal factors – downplays colonial and external influences

- Characterises African states as "weak", "soft", or "failed" – a Eurocentric standard

- Ignores the colonial genealogy of the state

Theories of the African State

 Reconstructionist Theory premise and key thinkers

-Basil Davidson: Crisis is a "crisis of institutions" – built on colonial models, illegitimate

-Crawford Young: "Can a new state be invented that sheds the debilitating traditions of the past?"

-George Ayittey: Build on indigenous institutions; "cheetah generation"

-Makau wa Mutua: Redraw map to 14 states reflecting indigenous institutions

-Claude Ake: Popular democracy – people want a "second independence" from the African elite -Marcus-Lopius Ropivia: Federalism through "bistate nuclei"

Indigenous African Political Systems

General characteristics (Muiu & Martin, Eldredge)

1. Based on kinship and ancestry – political organisation rooted in lineage and founding myths

2. Custom and tradition – not written constitutions

3. Secular and sacred power – rulers had religious/spiritual authority

4. Women played key roles – queen mothers, co-regents, priestesses, female rulers

5. Inherently democratic – village assemblies, councils, popular participation

6. Checks and balances – elaborate systems to prevent abuse of power

7. Power linked to institutions – not personalised; leader was custodian, not owner

8. Power decentralised – village and ward levels retained autonomy

Indigenous African Political Systems

Examples

• Egypt (Kemet): Unified c. 3100 BCE; divine kingship; vizier (prime minister); women had same rights; 4 female pharaohs

• Kush/Nubia: Capital Meroe; iron-smelting; queen mother (Kandake) could rule; kings chosen for courage

• Ghana: King kept gold in trust; only sister's son could inherit; trials by water

• Mali: Sunjata Keita; council of elders checked mansa; matrilineal; Ibn Battuta noted exceptional justice

• Yoruba (Oyo): Alaafin subject to Oyo Mesi (council); could force suicide; "considerably democratic"

• Axum: Third most powerful empire; federal system; first African coins

Key terminology of theme 1

• Fundi: New paradigm for studying the African state – centres African institutions and history

• Prebendal state: Richard Joseph – politics as struggle over scarce resources; rulers use oAice for personal gain

• Shadow state: William Reno – informal patronage system centred on rulers' control over resources

• Bulopwe: Luba – sacred quality giving kings right to rule by divine right

• Perpetual succession: Successor takes title and name of original holder – institution over individual

• Positional kinship: Fictitious relationships between positions made permanent

• Kandake: Kushite queen mother – could rule as co-regent or sovereign

• Indirect rule: Colonial policy of governing through indigenous chiefs – politicised culture

• Epistemic decolonisation: Push from Eurocentric knowledge toward ecology of knowledges

The 4 Elements of European State Formation

• Fluid Territory: Borders changed according to state capacity; states that couldn't defend themselves disappeared. From 1861-1945, a state disappeared every 3 years on average.

• Coercion: Extensive use of military force to suppress internal insurgency. GeoArey Best: "in no major European country during the twenty years before the French Revolution were troops not engaged in suppressing internal insurgence or riots."

• Assimilation: Active and violent cultural homogenisation. Eugen Weber: France's process "not easily distinguished from foreign conquest." David Bell: secular version of religious conversion through education.

• Exclusion: Voting restrictions, gerrymandering, expulsion, or genocide. The process of "ethnic unmixing" created homogeneous states.

These four elements are now regarded as unlawful by international standards.

The Ethnonationalist Project (Jerry Muller)

Central tenets

1. Nations exist

2. Each nation ought to have its own state

3. Each state should be made up of the members of a single nation

The Ethnonationalist Project (Jerry Muller)

Drivers

- Military competition – demand for expanded resources

- Economic growth – depended on mass literacy and easy communication

- Education policies – promoted common language → conflicts over language

- Social change – urbanisation, literacy, political mobilisation

- Psychological factors – emotional vacuum filled by national identity

The Ethnonationalist Project (Jerry Muller)

Key historical episodes

- Balkan Wars (1912-1913) – half a million people left their homelands

- Treaty of Lausanne (1923) – Turkey expelled 1.5 million; Greece expelled 400,000

- WWII – Nazi regime killed 6 million Jews

- Post-WWII (1944-1947) – 12 million ethnic Germans expelled – largest forced population movement in European history

Why the 4 Elements Cannot Work in Africa

• Fluid Territory: African borders fixed by OAU/AU principle – cannot change

• Coercion: Constrained by international norms – human rights, UN conventions

• Assimilation: Static borders generate difference rather than integration; Nigerians identify as Nigerian only outside the country

• Exclusion: Internationally sanctioned – apartheid was condemned; Rwanda faces accusations of genocide

• Key Quote (Ayoob): "European state makers at a corresponding point in the state building process did not have Amnesty International and the U.N. Human Rights Commission breathing down their necks."

Comparing European and African State Formation

Territory- Europe: Fluid; reflected state power. Africa: Static colonial borders

Borders- Europe: Changed through war. Africa: Fixed; cannot be changed

Population- Europe: Ethnically homogeneous after ethnic unmixing. Africa: Ethnically diverse; multiple groups

State Creation- Europe: Bottom-up; internal dynamics. Africa: Top-down; external imposition

Violence- Europe: Widespread; internal/external war. Africa: Mostly civil wars (not interstate)

Coercion- Europe: Extensive; no constraints. Africa: Constrained by international norms

Legitimacy- Europe: Developed over time. Africa: Lacks moral legitimacy; contested

External influences- Europe: Minimal. Africa: Heavy; colonialism, aid, conditionalities

The Tillyan Narrative

Charles Tilly: "War made the state, and the state made war."

- State formation was an unintended consequence of war-making and capital accumulation

- Power holders did not intend to create national states – states emerged because they solved problems

Why Tilly's narrative does not apply to Africa

- Africa's political development was done in peace (Herbst)

- Absence of interstate war has culminated in a continent of weak states

- Civil wars have weakened states further, not strengthened them

- International community prevents states from dying or being conquered

The Problem of Europe as a Model for State-Building

Why the Eurocentric narrative is flawed

1. It ignores the violence – European states were not created through peaceful agreements

2. It suffers from normative amnesia – developed states have forgotten their own violent histories

3. It ignores the ethnic diversity problem – Africa's colonial borders cut across ethnic groups, creating "Hapsburg-style states"

4. It ignores the chronology problem – European states were created when international norms were different

The Problem of Europe as a Model for State-Building

Consequences of using Eurocentric models as benchmarks

- African states consistently evaluated as "failed," "weak," or "fragile"

- "Best practices" from Western countries are inappropriate for African contexts

- Creates dependency on foreign aid and technical assistance

- Ignores African agency and indigenous institutions

Theme 2 Key terminology

• Westphalian sovereignty: States are supreme authority within borders; non-interference

• Absolutism: Monarch holds supreme authority, not limited by laws

• Bureaucracy: Administration with hierarchical structure, clear roles, rules

• Ethnonationalism: Nations defined by shared heritage; should have own states

• Ethnic unmixing: Separating ethnic groups through expulsion, deportation, genocide

• Juridical sovereignty: International recognition regardless of capacity to project power

• Procrustean task: Difficult challenge of projecting authority across diverse territory

• Normative expectations: International standards states expected to follow

The Berlin Conference (1884-1885)

What happened

- European powers (Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, Spain) carved up Africa

- 10,000 African polities incorporated into 40 European colonies (Meredith)

- Only Ethiopia and Liberia escaped partition

- Principle of "effective occupation" – powers had to demonstrate actual control

 

Key Quote (Bismarck):

> "Your map of Africa is really quite nice. But my map of Africa lies in Europe."

Examples of arbitrary borders

- Caprivi Strip – Germany wanted Zambezi River access

- The Gambia – British refused to give up trading post

- Mount Kilimanjaro – Queen Victoria gifted it to her grandson

- Cabinda – King Leopold wanted Atlantic access

The Seven Elements of Colonial Inheritance

1. Modern states: Africa fully integrated into international system of sovereign territories

2. Arbitrary boundaries: Borders reflected European interests; 44% are straight lines

3. Non-hegemonic states: Limited state capacity; power only in strategic regions; "colonialism on the cheap"

4. Weak links between state and society: Conquest, not consent; coercion substituted for legitimacy

5. Formation of state elites: Indirect rule and education created indigenous elites; nationalist movements led by these elites

6. Economic inheritance: Monocrop economies, export of surplus, exploitation of labour, underdevelopment

7. Weak political institutions: Authoritarian colonial rule; last-minute installation of democratic constitutions

The Three Processes of Underdevelopment

1. Exploitation of labour – Atlantic slave trade transported up to 15 million; workers paid below subsistence; forced labour in Congo and Mozambique

2. Export of surplus – Raw materials and profits sent to Europe; no reinvestment; wealth generated in Africa did not stay in Africa

3. Failure to diversify – Monocrop economies (Zambia copper, Ghana cocoa); transport only for export; little investment in human resources

 

Example: Guinea-Bissau – after 300 years of Portuguese rule: 14 graduates, 97% illiteracy, 265 miles of road, one factory

Why Colonial Borders Remain Permanent

Reason 1: Protection against recolonisation

- Colonial borders seen as a bulwark against new imperial incursions

- OAU/AU principle of territorial integrity

 

Reason 2: Group interests

- Dominant groups benefit from the status quo

- Minorities fear smaller states might be worse

- Some groups found security in colonial rule

 

Reason 3: The international community

- Sees African state as politically neutral entity

- Believes states can be reformed within existing borders

- Resists secession and border changes

The Three Waves of Decolonisation

• First (1956-1966): 35 states (71% of landmass) gained independence

• Second (1974-1975) Fall of Portugal's Estado Novo; Lusophone territories liberated (7% of landmass)

• Third (1989-1994): End of Cold War; Namibia (1990) and South Africa (1994); client regimes collapsed

The "Black Box" Effect (Spears)

- Decolonisation turned newly independent states into "black boxes"

- Internal matters of who ruled whom were of no concern to outsiders

- Democracy provided newly empowered majorities with opportunities to legitimately overrule minorities

- Minorities became disillusioned and alienated

The "Black Box" Effect (Spears)

Examples of rejection of colonial borders

- Biafra (1967) – Igbo declared independence; rejected Nigeria as "neocolonial state"

- South Sudan (2011) – gained independence after decades of war; then internal conflict

- Boko Haram – argue European powers caused demise of Sokoto Caliphate

- Rwanda genocide – Hutu majority's effort to prevent further Tutsi domination; rooted in colonial categorisation

Theme 3 Key terminology

• Berlin Conference: 1884-1885 conference where European powers divided Africa

• Effective occupation: European powers had to demonstrate actual control over territory

• Non-hegemonic state: State that cannot project power across its territory

• Indirect rule: Colonial governance through traditional chiefs; "colonialism on the cheap"

• Enclosure movement: Jackson – decolonisation permanently confined identity groups to colonial frontiers

• Irredentism: Desire to unite a divided community under one flag

• Underdevelopment: Process by which core states developed at periphery's expense

• Monocrop economy: Economy heavily dependent on one commodity

Defining State Failure and Related Concepts

• State Failure: Inability to address economic, security, and social needs of citizenry

• State Collapse: Total breakdown of political order, structure, and authority; absence of state institutions

• Weak State: Limited capacity to project power but maintains basic functions

• Fragile State: At risk of failure; showing signs of weakness but not yet collapsed

Defining State Failure and Related Concepts

Key Distinction: Government vs State

- Government = the leadership/captain of the ship

- State = the institutions/ship itself

- A government can collapse while the state survives

- In cases of complete collapse, both may disappear

The Six Functions of the State (Mazrui)

1. Sovereign control over territory

2. Sovereign supervision of national resources

3. Effective revenue extraction

4. Infrastructure development

5. Basic service provision (sanitation, education, housing, health care)

6. Governance and maintenance of law and order

"Every African government walks the tightrope between too much and too little government. An excess of government becomes tyranny; too little government becomes anarchy. Either can lead to the failed state."

Theories of State Failure

The Pre-Colonial Argument

- European interference interrupted the natural evolution of African states

- Pre-colonial African states were developing their own political institutions

- Colonialism destroyed this process

- African states were not allowed to reach maturity

Theories of State Failure

The Colonial Argument

- Colonial inheritance left African states with arbitrary borders, weak institutions, economic underdevelopment, politicised ethnic identities

- The post-colonial state retained the character of the colonial state

- Crawford Young: The colonial state was "alien to its core"

Theories of State Failure

The Post-Colonial Argument

- Crisis of accumulation – unproductive investment, neglect of agriculture, overdeveloped bureaucracies, corruption

- Crisis of governance – centralisation, one-party rule, no constitutional regime change

- Corruption and patronage – state institutions as conduits of power and wealth

The Crisis of Accumulation

Why capital accumulation failed

1. Over-ambitious import substitution – projects became inefficient "white elephants"; required state protection; technology imported from the West

2. Neglect of agriculture – state marketing boards bought harvests below market prices; farmers had no incentive; crop yields declined

3. Overdeveloped bureaucracies – Congo-Brazzaville: civil service wages = 50% of state expenditure; Kenya: parastatals dominated all large-scale economic activity

4. Patronage and clientelism – employment used to reward political supporters; long-term investment sacrificed for short-term political gain

5. Corruption and rent-seeking – officials added private levies to government transactions; state assets used or sold for private gain

The Crisis of Governance

Characteristics

- Power concentrated in the executive

- Parliaments were weak and subservient

- The judiciary was not independent

- One-party rule became the norm

- Where multi-party systems existed, they degenerated into ethnic or sectarian rivalries

- No constitutional method of removing unpopular incumbents

The Crisis of Governance

The Party System Dilemma (Mazrui)

- One-party state = too much government (tyranny)

- Multi-party system = often degenerates into ethnic rivalries (too little control)

- No-party state = Uganda experiment (still debated)

The Crisis of Governance

The Civil-Military Dilemma

- Military rule → too much government (tyranny)

- Civilian rule with politicians squabbling → too little government (anarchy)

 

Key Quote (Mazrui):

> "Virtually 'most African countries are failed states!' But there are variations of state capacity."

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) – In-Depth

What they were AND Rationale

- Response to the economic crisis of the 1970s and 1980s

- Imposed by the World Bank and IMF

- Components: deregulation, privatisation, liberalisation, removal of subsidies, devaluation, reduction of state spending

 

Rationale:

- African states were seen as inefficient and overextended

- Markets would allocate resources more efficiently

- Privatisation would reduce the burden on the state

- Currency devaluation would make exports more competitive

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) – In-Depth

Why SAPs failed and Results

Why SAPs failed:

- Did not address structural problems

- Ignored the colonial legacy

- Assumed Western models would work in African contexts

- No local ownership or consultation

- Imposed cuts to health, education, and social services

 

Results:

- Living standards dropped

- Increased poverty and inequality

- Deindustrialisation and destruction of local industries

- Food prices increased with removal of subsidies

- Unemployment rose

- Created deeper dependency rather than development

The Loss of State Authority: Civil Society Disengagement

Legal and Illegal Disengagement

Legal Disengagement:

- Switching markets – if government taxed tobacco, switch to maize

- Self-sufficiency – relying on family, kinship, village, religious, community networks

- Emigration – the ultimate exit strategy (but only a minority chose this)

 

Illegal Disengagement:

- Parallel markets (second economy/shadow economy) – street hawkers without licence; entrepreneurs in shadow economies

  - Nigeria: 68% of property and 94% of businesses in Lagos functioned outside government regulation

  - Value of Lagos second economy: US$45.1 billion

- Illegal marketing – farmers sold crops in unregulated second economy

  - Uganda: magendo accounted for up to two-thirds of GDP

  - Ghana (1982): two-thirds of cocoa crop smuggled out

- Illegal foreign exchange – street traders exchanged at "real" rates

- Crime and banditry – criminal activity more widespread; "no-go" areas for law enforcement

The Loss of State Authority: Civil Society Disengagement

The Insurgency Response and New wave of insurgency

The Insurgency Response:

- Politically driven (unlike bandits)

- Seek to overthrow the existing state

- Build alternative political authority

 

New wave of insurgency (1990s):

- Uganda: Museveni's NRA (1986)

- Ethiopia: EPRDF and EPLF (1991)

- Rwanda: RPF (1994)

- Congo: AFDL ousted Mobutu (1997)

4.7 The State's Survival Strategies

point 1-3

1. Re-legitimisation of the state

- Multi-party elections – best way to restore legitimacy

- But risky – incumbents could be defeated

 

2. State inversion

- Like a balloon losing altitude – jettison parts of the state

- Prioritise productive or strategic areas; abandon the rest

- Focus on key economic activity, key clients, agencies of coercion, critical territory

- Goal: reduce "state responsibility" without relinquishing "benefits of state power"

 

3. Tapping into foreign patronage

- Pose as "representatives of the people"

- Win aid and preferential trade agreements

- Resources used to shore up remaining institutions

4.7 The State's Survival Strategies

point 4-5

4. Exploiting parallel markets

- State officials turn a blind eye to illegal markets

- Receive money for not prosecuting illegal traders

- The criminalisation of the African state (Bayart, Ellis, Hibou)

 

5. The warlord state (Reno)

- Rulers abandon administration for collective good

- Institutions serve private interests

- No pretence of generating legitimacy

- Partners with TNCs – concentrates authority on most productive resources

- Profits shared between leaders, military, and TNC

- Little revenue filters down to civil society

The Dual Society and State Failure (Mazrui)

Plural Society: Multiple ethnic groups (e.g., Kenya, Tanzania). Risk- State may collapse because it has too many groups

Dual Society: Fundamental divide between two groups or areas. Risk- State may collapse because it has too few groups

The Three Types of Dualism

1. Ethnic duality without territorial separation – groups intermingled; no prospect of peaceful separation (e.g., Rwanda, Burundi, Northern Ireland)

2. Regional/territorial duality – groups concentrated in separate regions; increases risk of secession (e.g., Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, Sudan)

3. The most dangerous – pure ethnic differentiation without territorial differentiation; no prospect of separate peaceful lives (e.g., Rwanda, Burundi)

Responses to State Failure: External Actors

Before and after 9/11

Before 9/11: Humanitarianism

- Response to state collapse was "humanitarian intervention"

- Mission: intervene and "rescue" populations

- Examples: Somalia, Rwanda, Bosnia

- Result: Did NOT reverse the situation

- America's highly publicised intervention in Somalia ended with "Black Hawk Down" debacle

 

After 9/11: Security Threat

- State failure interpreted as threat to global order

- "Mandated" invasions and peacekeeping missions

- Countries described as "safe-havens" for terrorism

- Result: Failed to create stable states

- Afghanistan withdrawal (2020) is the best example

Case Study: Zaire/DRC (Mobutu's Vampire State)

Background

- Former Belgian Congo (renamed Zaire 1971, DRC 1997)

- Enormous natural resources: fertile land, minerals, hydroelectric potential

- 200+ ethnic groups

- 31-year rule of Mobutu Sese Seko (1965-1997)

- One of Africa's most predatory dictators

Case Study: Zaire/DRC (Mobutu's Vampire State)

Crisis of Accumulation and Crisis of Governance

Crisis of Accumulation:

- Maluku Steel Mill: US$1.5 billion; never ran at >10% capacity

- Inga-Shaba Power Scheme: cheaper to generate locally

- Agriculture: cotton yields 60,000 tons (1960) → 8,500 tons (1976)

- Food exporter → forced to import basic staples

 

Crisis of Governance:

- One-party structure; Mobutu dominated executive, legislative, and judicial

- "Musical chairs" system – 80 significant players rotated every 3 months

- No constitutional way of removing Mobutu

Case Study: Zaire/DRC (Mobutu's Vampire State)

Corruption and Disengagement

Corruption:

- Mobutu diverted US$5-8 billion of public assets

- Personal Swiss bank accounts

- General Eluki: US$2 million found in his home

 

Disengagement:

- Second economy up to 3x official GDP

- 60% of coffee bypassed marketing boards

- Education budget: 17.5% → 2.1%

- Agriculture budget: 29.3% → 4%

- Only 15% of colonial roads passable

Case Study: Zaire/DRC (Mobutu's Vampire State)

The fall

The Fall:

- AFDL rebellion (1997) – Mobutu overthrown

- East DRC remains in partial collapse

- All functions of sovereignty are "privatised" (Reyntjens)

- 5.4 million deaths in decade up to 2008

Theme 4 Key terminology

• State Failure: Inability to address economic, security, and social needs of citizenry

• State Collapse: Total breakdown of political order, structure, and authority

• Crisis of Accumulation: Failure to create wealth through productive investment

• Crisis of Governance: Failure to provide political structures that represent civil society

• Disengagement: Distancing civil society activities from the state

• Parallel Markets: Unofficial/second economies operating outside state control

• Extraversion: Bayart – African regimes depend on external resources for survival

• Warlord State: State serving private interests; no pretence of legitimacy

• Structural Adjustment: Economic reforms imposed by World Bank/IMF

• Dual Society: Fundamental divide between two groups or areas