AP Psychology Term Masterlist - max vo

adding onto list as year progresses with vocab! will hopefully be beneficial for ap exam

Critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

hindsight bias

the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct— to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Scientific Method

a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

Peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case Study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Social Desirability Bias

bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

Self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Convenience Sampling

sampling method where sample is drawn when readily available, not representing whole population.

Representative Sample

A representative sample is a sample where each subject has an equal chance of being drawn, and a conclusion can represent all people of a population through random sampling.

Random Sample

a sample that represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn. (note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between variables(-1.00 to +1.00)

Variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Positive Correlation

a relationship between two variables that move in the same direction

Negative Correlation

a relationship between two variables that move in opposite directions

Illusory Correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back(regress) toward the average

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors(Independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment— that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by change, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

placebo

a harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

single blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant(blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

double blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do

quantitative research

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

likert scale

responses that fall on a continuum (such as from “strongly dislike” to “strongly agree”)

qualitative research

a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

confederates

people who pretend to be fellow participants, but are actually part of the experiment some would say secret shoppers

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

informed assent

The same as informed consent (giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate) but for MINORS

debriefing

the postexperiential explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants

institutional review board

a team of at least five people that must include one scientist, one non-scientist, and one community representative. This team research proposals and safeguards the rights, welfare, and well-being of human research participants.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histrogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

skewed distribution

a distribution of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. (also called a normal distribution)

• mean = median

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for anything the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied.

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system.

central nervous system(CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system(PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system(CNS) to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

motor(efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

autonomic nervous system(ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs(such as the heart). Its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy. induces fight or flight response. works with the parasympathetic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center

dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to the muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly breather transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing(with a full-strength response) or not firing

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

“morphine within”; natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. Oversupply can suppress body’s natural endorphin supply.

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action through binding receptor sites and mimicking the neurotransmitter

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

endocrine system

the body’s ”slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

horomones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

addiction

an everyday term for compulsive use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences. (see also substance use disorder)

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

opioids

opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

hallucinogens

psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input