the muslim world expands

the Hijrah

The journey that Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina (originally named Yathrib) to escape persecution.

Qur’an

The holy book of Islam.

Hajj

Sacred pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca that Muslims (if able to) are required to make at least once in their lifetime.

mosque

Islamic place of worship.

Caliph

The religious and political leader of Muslim communities/states.

Sunni

The larger of the two branches of Islam that doesn’t believe the prophet explicitly stated a successor.

Shi’a

Believed the prophet designated his cousin and son-in-law to be his successor.

Were the Ottomans a group that settled in one place?

No, they were nomadic and constantly using their military to keep conquering territory.

Why was Constantinople so important to the Ottomans?

• Center of many trade routes (access to sea)

• Very wealthy (Christian artifacts were made of gold, silver, and gems)

• Had possible stores of gold underground

Suleiman

Ottoman sultan who brought in the “golden age” (1520-1566) for the Empire

• stronger military, navy, and fortresses

• advancements in different fields

• called “the Lawgiver” by his people, but “the Magnificent” by Europeans

Why and how did Constantine fortify Constantinople?

Why: protect the city + artifacts from enemies

How:

• large walls (inner wall was lined w/ troops)

• barrages that released weapons

• moat

Who was finally able to breach Constantinople’s fortification?

Mehmed II (“the Conqueror”) invaded Constantinople with his fleet (75k+ people) by breaking the walls w/ 20 ft. cannons.

How was the Ottoman Empire’s conquest of Constantinople a major turning point?

• End of the Byzantine Empire + Middle Ages

• Threat to Christian dominance

• Became the capital of the Ottoman Empire

• Ottomans controlled many key trade routes

Devshirme system

Ottomans forced Christian families in the Balkans to sell their children into the service of the sultan. The Ottomans would convert them to Islam and make them loyal officials and/or janissaries.

Janissaries

The sultan’s elite corps of soldiers who were granted land, making them very loyal.

• This land was returned to the sultan when the soldier died.

What made the Ottoman military powerful?

• Weapons, gunpowder, cannons, etc.

• Strong armies on land

• Powerful navies at sea

Social structure of the Ottoman Empire

• Lacked a permanent aristocracy (power of aristocratic class was limited)

• Promotion was based on merit

• Imported slaves, held prisoners from wars, and “bought” children for labor

• Diversity-stimulated innovation

• Religion was part of govt. (sultans/caliphs enforced Sunni Islam)

• Depended on system of slavery

• Many languages + cultures were integrated

At its peak, how many continents did the Ottoman Empire cover?

3: Africa, Asia, and Europe

*Especially had control of the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean

What were the consequences of the slavery system in the Ottoman Empire?

• People demanded more rights

• Armed soldiers became a threat

What were the consequences of land not being inherited through janissaries?

Janissaries developed an aristocracy, giving land to their own family, rather than returning it to the sultan.

Which countries were the main threats to Morocco during the period of Sa'âdi rule, and what were the religions of their leaders?

Spain (Christian), Portugal (Christian), and the Ottoman Empire (Muslim)

Who was Mawläy ‘Abd al-Mälik’s main rival for the Moroccan throne, and to whom did this competitor turn for support?

His rival was Al-Mutawakkil, who turned to Don Sebastián I (the Christian King of Portugal) for help.

What was in Mawläy ‘Abd al-Mälik’s letter to Don Sebastián I?

He was asking for peace, but Sebastián and Al-Mutawakkil did not comply with his demands.

What was the outcome of the Battle of the Three Kings?

All 3 Kings died, but this meant that Mawläy ‘Abd al-Mälik’s brother could rule his kingdom (Morocco).

Into what area did the Mughals expand?

As time went on, the empire expanded downwards, conquering modern-day India.

What groups or classes of people were the most important supporters of Mughal rule?

Nobles

How did the Mughal Empire rule over its many diverse communities?

• Religious tolerance

• Participated in the global economy

• Had a common language

• Formed an ethical code

• Practiced shared traditions

What was the role of the Mughal Empire in the global economy?

• traded hand-loom textiles, cotton and silk fabric, and black pepper

• center of spice trading (spices were mainly from Indonesia)

• water route for the center of the global economy

What internal challenges did the Mughal emperors face in 1750?

• Nobles and mansabdars became very powerful

• No more land for Empire to conquer and give to mansabdars for loyalty

• Political tension + weakness due to fights for succession

• Pressure from foreign powers

• Emperor Aurangzeb’s belligerent rule

• Religious conflict due to Aurangzeb

What external challenges did the Mughal emperors face in 1750?

• The East India Company kept expanding past Bengal, conquering more land in India

• Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states also fought for land

• The Empire’s budget was spent on war

• Role in the economy led to less money being available to spend on the state

Politics in the Mughal Empire

• Declining political stability due to many leaders

• The Empire’s political control relied on giving land to government leaders (running out of land —> problem)

Economics in the Mughal Empire

• Akbar’s economic strategies —> profit

• Akbar’s conquests and gain of territories led to the rise of port cities

• The Empire was the center of global trading

Religion in the Mughal Empire

• Akbar hosted religious debates

• The Empire allowed for religious tolerance, but they did have a religious tax for non-Muslims.  

• Aurangzeb’s rule led to a lot of religious damage

Social life in the Mughal Empire

• The Empire (before Aurangzeb’s rule) was fairly religiously tolerant —> social stability

• Diverse culture; Akbar was a welcoming ruler who appreciated other cultures

• Art and literature flourished in the Empire; miniature paintings were a popular craft

Technology in the Mughal Empire

• Architectural masterpieces (Taj Mahal and the Peacock Throne)

• Strong military

• Advancements in textile-making led to profit from trade

Why did the empire weaken under the rule of Aurangzeb?

• religious persecution/discrimination

• famine, disease, casualties, and tension due to war

• social instability

• destroyed religious buildings

Why were Akbar’s tax policies so successful?

They benefitted the poor, leading to higher productivity and more profit.

What type of Islam did the Safavid Empire practice? What about their neighbors?

The founders and the majority of the people in the Persian Safavid Empire practiced Shia (Shi’ite) Islam, while their neighbors practiced Sunni Islam.

Why was the region of Persia (modern-day Iran) so diverse at the time of the founding of the Safavid empire?

• geographic diversity

• religious diversity (majority Muslim, but had a few minority religions)

• trading traffic

• many empires of diverse cultures once existed in the same region

What was the Mahdi within the Safavid Islamic tradition?

A “holy” figure who was believed to be the successor of Ali (a relative of the prophet Muhammad).

• Safavid Islamic tradition was based their beliefs on when the Mahdi would return to save them

How was marriage strategic and political among the Safavid Qezilbash (“Red Turban”) ruling elite?

Competitors for the position of the ruler (Shah) would strategically marry a woman that represented a certain faction they believed in.

• The married couple would then gain a lot of political power and continue the noble/royal bloodline

What neighboring state fought with the Safavids the most and why?

The Ottomans; religious differences, resources (trade routes), and territory.

What were the tools the Safavid rulers used to govern this large and diverse state? How effective were those strategies?

• Split their government and made it a bureaucracy

• Changed their economic policies/system

• Forcefully converted people to Shia Islam

• Practiced diplomacy

• Made deals with other nations

Overall: their bureaucracy was successful, but conversions were not.

Was religious diversity important to the Safavids?

No; wanted people to practice Shia Islam

• led to conflict between the Safavids and other Empires

The Safavids: motivations for expansion

• trade

• cultural blending

• spread Shia Islam

The Safavids: methods of expansion

war and gunpowder

The Safavids: methods for maintaining control

• forced conversion

• military power

• bureaucracy

The Safavids: challenges to control

• neighboring Empires (Ottomans eventually take control)

• political tension (killing heirs)

The Mughals: motivations for expansion

• wealth

• wanted rich trade routes throughout modern-day india

The Mughals: methods of expansion

war and gunpowder

The Mughals: methods of maintaining control

• religious tolerance

• tax policies (ex: one was based on a percentage of income)

• Hindu and Muslim nobles had the ability to hold govt. power

The Mughals: challenges to control

• foreign influence (British East India Company)

• feud/rebellions within the Empire

• Aurangzeb became a controversial leader

The Ottomans: motivations for expansion

• conquer land

• show off military strategies/campaigns (what they were known for)

The Ottomans: methods of expansion

• military campaigns

• war

• gunpowder

• political alliances

The Ottomans: methods of maintaining control

• religious tolerance (but with tax)

• millet system (religious equality)

• strong government with clear laws/expectations of citizens

• strong military (able to defend and attack)

The Ottomans: challenges to control

• political tensions within the Empire

• corruption

• weak successors

• struggle to manage so much territory

• WWI leads to final collapse (involved in European war)

similarities and differences: motivations for expansion

S: Mughals and Ottomans → expansion of territory for financial gain

D: Safavids → expansion of religion

similarities in methods of expansion

used war and gunpowder + military campaigns

similarities and differences: control and administration

S: political tension

D: Safavids struggled because of lack of religious tolerance

similarities and differences: effectiveness

S: Ottomans + Mughals → tolerant → success

*Ottomans conquered Safavids

D: Safavids were weakest → lack of religious tolerance → no loyalty

Ghazi

a warrior for Islam

Osman

founded the Ottoman Empire

• successors expanded by buying land, forming alliances, and conquering (gunpowder, cannons)

Sultan

"Overlord," or "one with power"; title for the Ottoman rulers during the rise of the Ottoman Empire.

Timur the Lame/Timur-i-Lang

Defeated Ottomans at Battle of Ankara (1402), halting their expansion, and burned the powerful city of Baghdad.

Isma’il

Founded the Safavid Empire; seized most of modern-day Iran and named himself as the Shah (monarch of Iran)/King.

• Forced people to convert to Shi’ism (otherwise, they were executed)

• Destroyed Sunni population in Baghdad

Shah Abbas (Abbas the Great)

Created a “Golden Age” for the Safavids.

• Combined Persian, Arab, and Ottoman culture

• advancements in military, culture, art, etc.

Esfahan

Capital of the Safavid Empire known for its beautiful architecture.

Babur

Founded the Mughal Empire; built up an army and conquered modern-day India for the Mughal Empire.

• Grandson was Akbar

Sikh

A member of a nonviolent religious group whose beliefs blend elements of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sufism.

Shah Jahan

Married the Persian princess Mumtaz Mahal and built the Taj Mahal as her tomb.

• His two passions were beautiful architecture and his wife.