Biosphere & Lithosphere Flashcards

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts in the biosphere and lithosphere, including biogeography, climatology, tectonics, ecology, and conservation.

Biogeography

The study of the distribution of plants and animals.

Terrestrial ecosystems

A self-sustaining association of land-based plants and animals and their abiotic environment.

Biome

A large, stable, terrestrial ecosystem characterized by specific plant and animal communities.

Ecotones

Boundary zones between different but adjoining ecosystems at any scale.

Terrestrial vegetation

The plant life composed of the six major groups: forest, savanna, shrubland, grassland, desert, tundra.

Deserts

Biomes that cover more than ⅓ of Earth’s land surface.

Climate

Weather over time, which greatly influences ecosystems.

Insolation

Incoming solar radiation that is the energy input for the climate system.

Energy balance

The imbalance created by energy surpluses at the equator and deficits at the poles, causing global wind and ocean current patterns.

Atmospheric Moisture

The movement of water through the hydrologic cycle affects weather and Earth's climate.

Genetic classification

A climate classification based on causative factors.

Empirical classification

A climate classification based on statistical data such as temperature and precipitation.

Tropical climates

Climates characterized by consistent day length and warm temperatures.

Mesothermal climates

Climates that transition from hot to cool summers from tropics to poles.

Microthermal climates

Climates with cool summers and cold to very cold winters.

Polar climates

Climates in high latitude regions that have very low precipitation and cold temperatures.

Dry climates

Climates that cover regions between 15 degrees and 30 degrees N and S latitudes characterized by stable air and low humidity.

Seismic Waves

Waves from earthquakes that travel through different layers of the Earth differently.

Core

The innermost layer of Earth, consisting of solid inner and liquid outer iron and nickel.

Mantle

The thick layer of the Earth made mostly of iron and magnesium; it consists of upper and lower parts.

Crust

The outermost layer of the Earth, including continental and oceanic crust.

Rheology

The study of deformation and flow of materials.

Lithosphere

The rigid layer made up of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle.

Asthenosphere

The semi-fluid layer beneath the lithosphere that allows tectonic plates to move.

Rock cycle

The process through which rocks change from one type to another over time.

Igneous rocks

Rocks that cool and solidify from molten rock.

Sedimentary rocks

Rocks formed through the weathering and disintegration of other rocks into grains or fragments called clasts.

Metamorphic rocks

Rocks that form when existing igneous or sedimentary rocks undergo heat and pressure.

Principle of uniformitarianism

The idea that the physical processes occurring today have been the same throughout Earth's history.

Principle of superposition

In geological formations, the youngest beds are at the top and the oldest at the base.

Plate tectonics

The theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that move relative to each other.

Divergent plate boundaries

Boundaries where two tectonic plates move away from each other.

Convergent plate boundaries

Boundaries where two tectonic plates move toward each other.

Transform plate boundaries

Boundaries where two plates slide past each other horizontally.

Hot spots

Areas of volcanic activity not associated with plate boundaries, fed by mantle plumes.

Composite volcano

Large volcanoes characterized by interleaved layers of lava, ash, and debris.

Shield volcano

Volcano with broad, gentle slopes formed by the accumulation of low-viscosity lava.

Cinder cone volcano

Small cone-shaped volcano built from pyroclastic material.

Caldera

Large depression formed at the summit of a volcano after an eruption.

Explosive eruptions

Eruptions characterized by violent outbursts of gas and ash.

Effusive eruptions

Eruptions characterized by the flow of low-viscosity lava.

P-waves

Primary waves that cause compressional motion during an earthquake.

S-waves

Secondary waves that cause up-and-down motion during an earthquake.

Earthquake magnitude

The measure of energy released during an earthquake.

Moment Magnitude Scale (Mw)

Scale that measures total energy released by an earthquake.

Richter Scale

Scale that measures the amplitude of seismic waves to assess magnitude.

Fault scarp

The rupture surface of a fault that is visible at the Earth's surface.

Epicenter

The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake.

Focus

The point below the Earth's surface where an earthquake starts.

Compression stress

Stress that causes rocks to shorten.

Tension stress

Stress that causes rocks to stretch.

Shear stress

Stress that causes lateral twisting in rocks.

Strain

How rocks respond to stress, expressed in folding or faulting.

Anticline

An upward fold in rock layers.

Syncline

A downward fold in rock layers.

Monocline

A large fold that resembles a carpet on a step.

Normal fault

A fault caused by extensional stress.

Thrust fault

A fault caused by compressional stress.

Transform fault

A fault caused by lateral-shearing stress.

Ground vibrations

Vibrations caused by the sudden release of energy from faults.

Induced earthquakes

Earthquakes caused by human interaction with the ground.

Seismic waves

Energy waves that radiate from the focus of an earthquake.

Love waves

Surface waves that cause a snake-like motion during an earthquake.

Rayleigh waves

Surface waves that cause an ocean wave-like motion.

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale

A scale that assesses earthquakes by their intensity and damage.

Seismic energy

Energy released by earthquakes that produces waves.

Carbon dating

Method of determining the age of rocks using Carbon-14.

Uranium dating

Method of determining the age of rocks using uranium isotopes.

Plate boundaries

Regions where tectonic plates meet, causing geological activity.

Cinder cone

A type of volcano that is small and steep, formed from volcanic debris.

Igneous processes

Processes involving the formation of igneous rocks from molten material.

Felsic magma

Magma that is high in silica content; more viscous and exploitive.

Mafic magma

Magma that is lower in silica content; less viscous and more fluid.

Volcanism

Geological activity involving the eruption of magma onto the Earth's surface.

Tectonic forces

Forces created by the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates.

Hydrologic cycle

The cycle through which water moves through the Earth's systems.

Climate zones

Regions of the Earth classified by distinct climatic conditions.

Orographic lifting

Rain shadows created when air rises over a mountain range.

Seafloor spreading

The process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic crust is formed.

Subduction zone

An area where one tectonic plate moves under another.

Continental rift zone

An area where tectonic forces are pulling apart the continental crust.

Island arc

A chain of volcanic islands formed at a convergent oceanic subduction zone.

Flood basalts

Extensive sheets of basaltic lava from effusive volcanic eruptions.

Rock deformation

Changes in rock structure due to stress and strain.

Pyroclastic flow

Fast-moving currents of hot gas and volcanic matter.

Seismic stations

Facilities used to detect and record earthquakes.

Lava fountains

Eruptive bursts of lava into the air during an effusive eruption.

Volcanic ash

Fine particles of volcanic glass and rock ejected during eruptions.

Caldera formation

The process of a volcanic structure collapsing after an eruption.

Volcanic gases

Gaseous emissions from a volcano that can cause explosive eruptions.

Lithospheric plates

Large segments of Earth's lithosphere that move and interact.

Subduction-related volcanism

Volcanism related to tectonic plate subduction.

Earthquake prediction

Methods to forecast the occurrence of earthquakes.

Tectonic activity

Geological events related to the movement of Earth's plates.

Earth composition

The materials and elements that make up the Earth's layers.

Air pressure systems

Systems that describe the distribution of air pressures around the Earth.

Greenhouse effect

The warming of the Earth's surface due to trapped greenhouse gases.

Biosphere

The global sum of all ecosystems, where life exists.

Climate feedback loops

Processes that can amplify or reduce the effects of climate change.

Biogeochemical cycles

Cycles through which elements such as carbon move through the Earth's systems.