AP Psychology, Unit 6

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial mis proportions

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

sensorimotor stage

Age: birth to about 2 years
Description: experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping
Key milestones: object permanence, stranger anxiety

preoperational stage

Age: about 2 to 7
Description: Representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning
Key Milestones: pretend play, egocentrism

concrete operational stage

Age: about 7 to 11
Description: Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
Key Milestones: conservation, mathematical transformations

formal operational stage

Age: about 12 to adulthood
Description: reasoning abstractly
Key Milestones: abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

preconventional morality

Before age 9, self interest, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards; "If your save your dying wife, you'll be a hero"

conventional morality

early adolescence; uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order; "If you steal the drug for her, everyone will think you're a criminal.

postconventional morality

adolescence and beyond; actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles; "people have a right to live"

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

infancy stage

Age: from birth to one year
Issue: trust vs mistrust
Description of task: If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

Toddlerhood stage

Age: 1 to 3 years old
Issue: autonomy vs shame and doubt
Description of task: Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

Preschool stage

Age: 3 to 6 years
Issue: Initiative vs guilt
Description of task: Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

Elementary School stage

Age: 6-puberty
Issue: Competence vs. Inferiority
Description of task: children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

Adolescence stage

Age: teen years into 20s
Issue: Identity vs role confusion
Description of task: Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

Young adulthood stage

Age: 20s to early 40s
Issue: Intimacy vs isolation
Description of task: Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

Middle adulthood stage

Age: 40s to 60s
Issue: Generativity vs stagnation
Description of task: Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

Late adulthood stage

Age: late 60s and up
Issue: integrity vs despair
Description of task: Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

Carol Gilligan

Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships

Henry and Margaret Harlow

Performed sociological experiments on monkeys in the 1960s.

Food is not what develops bonds, contact is. Isolation caused monkeys to not function normally.

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions.

Jean Piaget

Known for his four stage theory of cognitive development in children

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

Lev Vygotsky

child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

avoidant attachment

insecure attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others

ambivalent attachment

insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return

disorganized attachment

a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information, "hooks"

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information; making new "hooks" or changing old ones

gender

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, non binary, etc

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

gender identity

our sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of the two

neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed

Teratogens

"monster makers"; agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas; adding to our existing "hooks"

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

when can an infant lift their head 90º when lying on their stomach?

about 2 to 3 months

when can an infant roll over?

about 3 to 5 months

when can an infant sit propped up?

about 3 to 4 months

When can an infant sit unsupported?

around 5.5 to 8 months

when can an infant stand holding on to something?

about 6 to 10 months

when can an infant walk holding on to something?

about 9 to 13 months

when can an infant stand alone well?

about 11.5 to 14 months

when can an infant walk well?

about 12 to 14.5 months

blinking reflex

stimulation: flash of light or puff of air
response: closes both eyes
duration: permanent

Babinski reflex

stimulus: sole of foot stroked
response: big toe moves up and toes spread out, foot twists in
Duration: disappears 9 months to one year

grasping reflex

Stimulus: palms touched
Response: grasps tightly
Duration: weakens after 3 months, disappears after 1 year

Moro (startle) reflex

stimulus: sudden stimulation; loud noises or sudden movement
response: extend arms and legs; throw head and neck back
Duration: disappears 3 to 4 months

rooting reflex

Stimulus: touch on cheek or side of mouth
Response: turning head to same side with mouth open, begins sucking
Duration: disappears 3 to 4 months

stepping reflex

stimulus: place soles of feet on flat surface
response: legs move in walking pattern
Duration: disappears 3 to 4 months

sucking reflex

Stimulus: object touching mouth
Response: sucks automatically
Duration: disappears 3 to 4 months

swimming reflex

stimulus: placed face down in water
response: makes coordinated swimming movements
duration: disappears at 6-7 months

tonic neck reflex

stimulus: infant placed on back, head being turned to one side, usually the right
response: stretch arm out and bend opposite arm at the elbow.
Duration: disappears 2 months

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

permissive parenting

style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any demands on a child's behavior

uninvolved parenting

A style of parenting in which the parents minimize both the time they spend with their children and their emotional involvement with them and provide for their children's basic needs, but little else.

morality of constraint

children are aware of rules and see them as sacred and unalterable

morality of cooperation

behavior based on mutual understanding between equals