Individual Differences - Chpt 1, 2 + 3 - Personality Theory, Psychoanalytic Approach, Freudian Theorising

Define implicit personality theories.

Lay beliefs people hold about how traits go together; used to judge and predict others.

Give one problem and one real-life influence of implicit theories.

Problem: biased, unreliable impressions; Influence: shapes real decisions like hiring, grading, dating.

Who defined personality as a “dynamic organisation”?

Gordon Allport (1961).

List 3 key features of psychological definitions of personality.

Dynamic organisation of systems, relatively stable/enduring, influences behaviour and experience.

What are the 4 aims of personality psychology?

Describe, Explain, Predict, Apply.

What is a psychological construct, and why must it be operationalised?

An abstract trait (e.g., extraversion); must be defined as measurable procedures so it can be tested objectively.

What is idiographic research? One strength and weakness.

Study of unique individuals/cases; Strength: rich depth; Weakness: limited generalisability.

What is nomothetic research? One strength and weakness.

Study of general laws across people; Strength: predictive, testable; Weakness: overlooks individual uniqueness.

Name two classic debates in personality research.

Nature vs nurture; Conscious vs unconscious (also person–situation, clinical vs statistical).

What are the two main strands of personality theorising?

Clinical/psychoanalytic strand; Individual-differences/psychometric strand.

Name one strength and one weakness of the clinical strand.

Strength: insightful, therapeutic relevance; Weakness: low testability/less scientific.

Which statistical method underpins the individual-differences strand?

Factor analysis (psychometrics).

Who described 30 personality types in antiquity?

Theophrastus.

What did Aristotle emphasise in early views of personality?

Morality and virtue (character, eudaimonia).

List 3 criteria for evaluating theories.

Testability (falsifiability), Comprehensiveness, Parsimony (also heuristic/applied value).

Which model has high applied value but less explanatory depth?

Trait/psychometric (individual-differences) models.

What are the three levels of consciousness in Freud’s model?

Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious.

What is the role of the ego?

Mediates between id and superego via the reality principle.

List Freud’s psychosexual stages in order.

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital.

Give two defence mechanisms with examples.

Projection (blaming others), Rationalisation (“I failed because the exam was unfair”).

How did Freud view dreams?

Manifest vs latent content; pathway to unconscious wish fulfilment.

What criticism is made about Freud’s resistance to experimental testing?

Circularity/unfalsifiability—only psychoanalysts could “verify” it.

What modern reinterpretations exist for id/ego/superego?

Id ≈ impulsivity/drive; Ego ≈ executive control; Superego ≈ morality/social rules.

What do studies suggest about Freudian slips?

Mostly linguistic or cognitive errors, not evidence of unconscious conflict.

Which defence mechanism has stronger empirical support?

Projection (shown in priming and attribution studies).

What do modern dream studies show?

Dreams reflect day residue and emotion regulation more than wish fulfilment.

What is Adler’s “inferiority complex”?

Overwhelming inadequacy → low self-esteem, avoidance; motivates compensation.

What did Adler mean by “social interest”?

Innate potential to care for others and contribute to society; key to healthy development.

How did Adler believe birth order influenced personality?

First-born responsible, Middle competitive, Youngest dependent/pampered (general tendencies).

What is Jung’s “collective unconscious”?

Shared inherited reservoir of human experience containing archetypes.

Name four Jungian archetypes.

Shadow, Persona, Anima/Animus, Self.

What is individuation (Jung)?

Integrating conscious and unconscious parts to realise the Self.

How did Horney challenge Freud’s view of women?

Rejected penis envy; proposed womb envy; stressed culture and relationships.

What are Horney’s three neurotic personality types?

Compliant, Aggressive, Detached.

Name one unique defence mechanism from Horney.

Arbitrary rightness (rigid certainty to avoid conflict).

How did Horney’s treatment approach differ from Freud’s?

Focused on honest interpersonal exploration and confronting relational distortions, not detached interpretation.