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Morphology

The study of the internal structure of words.

Different Types of Words

1. SIMPLE WORDS

2. COMPLEX WORDS

3. MULTI-WORD WORDS

4. CLITICS

5. UNITS SMALLER THAN WORDS

Simple Words (Simplex/Simplicia)

Words with a root/base and no additional elements.

e.g. car (n.) – drive (v.) – fast (adj.) – always (adv.) – across (prep.) …

Complex Words

Words with a root/base plus additional modifying elements.

e.g self-driving (adj.) – technologically (adv.) – outsmart (v.) – upgrade (n./v.)

Multi-Word Words

Contain more than one word to express one single meaning.

e.g. to be in the driver's seat (= to lead) – off the cuff (unprepared)

Clitics

Fuse two words (one of them functional) into a single word unit.

e.g. mustn't – won't – wouldn't – she's – he'd

Units smaller than words

elements with a residue meaning that attach to roots/bases

e.g. un (harmed) – (magn) ify – (bibl) ic/al – (king) dom – (govern) ance – (waste)ful

Morpheme Independence

Free vs. Bound.

Morpheme Function

Lexical vs. Grammatical

Free Morpheme

Can stand alone as a word (e.g., car, drive).

Bound Morpheme

Cannot stand alone and must be attached to a root (e.g., -ing, un-).

Lexical Morpheme

Has a dictionary meaning (e.g., car, happy).

Grammatical Morpheme

Expresses grammatical relations (e.g., -ed, -s).

Inflection

Forms grammatical words to fit into sentence contexts. (gramatical)

Word-Formation

The process of creating new words.

Morphemes

Minimal building blocks of words.

smallest meaning - caring the elements/units in language

Derivation

The process of adding affixes to a root to create a new word. (lexical)

Word Formation 4

1.Compounding

2.Conversion

3.Clippings & Shortenings

4.Blending/Blends

Compounding

Combining at least two free lexical morphemes to form a compound.

e.g. air + port = airport

Conversion

Changing the word class of a word without adding any affixes.

e.g. to jump(v) - jump(n)

Clipping

Shortening polysyllabic words by removing some syllables.

e.g. advertisement = ad

Acronymization

Shortening compounds by using the initials to create a new (phonetic) word.

e.g. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

Abbreviation

Shortening compounds by using the initials and pronouncing them separately.

e.g. United Kingdom - UK

Blending

Shortening two existing words and combining the remainders.

e.g. brunch (breakfast + lunch)

Phonetics

looks at the physical properties of different sounds and their ways of articulation.

e.g. cup /kʌp/ – car /kɑː/ (vowel length)

PHONETICS

①ACOUSTIC

②AUDITORY

③ARTICULATORY

Phonology

looks at the function of speech sounds in larger units of language (e.g. words)

Investigates possible combinations of speech sounds (phonotactics)

e.g. hat /hæt/ – bæt / / (minimal pairs)

squid (n.) /skwɪd / – *psquid /pskwɪd/ (actual – impossible words)

Speech Sounds

The sounds produced by the human vocal tract used in language.

Acoustic Phonetics

measuring audible sound properties.

Auditory Phonetics

researching how we hear speech sounds

Articulatory Phonetics

investigating how speech sounds are formed

Vowel Length

The duration of a vowel sound (e.g., /kʌp/ vs /kɑː/).

Phonotactics

The study of possible combinations of speech sounds in a language.

e.g. "str" is okay at the beginning (like in "street").

• But "ng" can't start a word — "ngap" is not an English word.

Minimal Pairs

Pairs of words that differ in only one phoneme.

e.g. goat - coat ; chip - cheap

Vocal Tract

The anatomical structure involved in speech production.

Organs of Speech production

4 NASAL CAVITY

3 TONGUE + ROOF OF MOUTH

2 LIPS + TEETH

1 VOCAL FOLDS

Nasal Cavity

sounds are produced by lettng air pass through the nose

e.g. ring /ŋ/

Tongue + Roof of Mouth

sound use the tongue and the palate/velum;

e.g. all vowels, kick /k/

Lips and Teeth

sound use upper & lower lips and teeth;

e.g. bip /b, p/, thorn /θ/

Voiced sounds

use the vibration of the vocal folds;

e.g. buzz /z/

Voiced Sounds

Sounds produced with vibration of the vocal folds.

Phases of Speech Production

1 INITIATION

2 PHONATION

3 ARTICULATION

Mechanism of Speech Production

The processes and topography involved in producing speech.

Initiation

The lungs produce an air pressure by inhaling, which is then expelled through throat and mouth or nose. (egressive air stream)

Egressive Air Stream

Airflow produced by exhaling, used in speech production.

Phonation

The air stream passes through the larynx and sets the vocal folds/cords in motion. This vibration produces the actual voice. (voiced vs. voiceless sounds)

Articulation

The oscillating air stream passes through pharynx, the mouth or nose and is then modified by articulating speech organs (articulators: e.g. tongue, palate, teeth, lips)

Vowels

little obstruction of the air stream;

more sonorous;

form nuclear of syllable

Consonants

Narrow/complete closure of vocal tract;

less sonorous;

form boundary of syllable

Stops/Plosives

Fricatives

Affricates

Nasals

Approximants(Laterals/ Semi-vowels)

Glottals

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound that distinguish meaning in a language.

smallest meaning - distinguishing element/unit in language

Phonemes can change a word's meaning, such as "bat" and "pat."

Phoneme Inventory

The set of phonemes in a language.

Phoneme Distribution

The frequency with which phonemes occur in a language.

Syllable Structure

The organization of sounds within a syllable.

CVC Syllable

A basic syllable structure consisting of a consonant-vowel-consonant.

Onset

The beginning consonant(s) of a syllable. e.g. Cat, Sing

Nucleus

The vowel sound within a syllable, often considered its core. e.g cAt, sIng

Coda

The ending consonant(s) of a syllable. e.g. caT , siNG

Suprasegmentals/Prosody

Speech features that extend over syllables, words, or phrases, like stress, tone, or word juncture.

Prosodic Feature

A speech feature such as stress, tone, or word juncture.

Intonation

The rise and fall of pitch in speech.