Anatomy and Physiology: Homeostasis and Biochemical Compounds

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering homeostasis, feedback mechanisms, blood sugar regulation, chemical foundations, and organic macromolecules based on the lecture transcript.

Homeostasis

One of human's survival needs which enable them to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment.

Set point

The physiological optimum value for a specific body factor.

Normal Range

The spread of values within which fluctuations are considered insignificant.

Stimulus

A change or disruption in the internal environment that triggers a response.

Sensor (Receptor)

A cell or organ that detects a change and sends information to the control center.

Control Center

The component that compares data to the set point and decides what action is needed.

Effector

The component that carries out the response to restore balance.

Response

The action taken by the effector to bring the variable back to normal.

Negative Feedback Mechanism

A control mechanism where the effect of the response is to shut off the original stimuli or reduce its intensity, acting to oppose the stimulus.

Hypothalamus

The temperature regulation center of the brain which indicates if it gets either too hot or too cold.

Positive Feedback Mechanism

A biological control mechanism that amplifies the initial stimulus, pushing the variable farther from its original value.

Glucose

A simple sugar with the chemical formula $C_6H_{12}O_6$ that is the body's main source of energy.

Endocrine cells

Cells that release hormones into the bloodstream.

Pancreas

An organ that regulates blood sugar by producing insulin and glucagon.

Beta cells

Pancreatic cells that detect excess glucose and release insulin.

Insulin

A hormone that lowers blood sugar by helping cells absorb glucose.

Adipocytes

Fat cells that store energy.

Glycogen

A stored form of glucose, insoluble and used for energy reserves in the liver and muscle.

Hyperglycemia

High blood sugar levels.

Alpha cells

Pancreatic cells that detect a drop in glucose levels and release glucagon.

Glucagon

A hormone that raises blood sugar by releasing stored glucose.

Gluconeogenesis

The process of creating new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

Type 1 Diabetes

A condition caused by autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing cells, resulting in no insulin production.

Type 2 Diabetes

A condition characterized by chronically high blood glucose levels and insulin resistance where cells do not respond properly to insulin.

Insulin resistance

A condition where cells do not respond properly to insulin, making it ineffective at lowering blood sugar.

Glycogenolysis

The process where glycogen is broken down into glucose, raising endogenous blood glucose.

Glycogenesis

The process where excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle.

Cellular Toxins

Substances that interfere with normal cellular function, classified as natural (venom, plants), synthetic (pollutants), or drugs.

Cell

The smallest unit of life and building block of all living organisms.

Organelle

A specialized structure within a cell that performs a specific function.

Tissue

A group of similar cells organized to perform a particular function.

Atom

The smallest unit of an element that still retains the properties of that element.

Element

A pure substance made entirely of one kind of atom that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means.

Compound

A substance formed when two or more elements chemically combine in fixed ratios.

Inorganic Compound

Compounds that do not contain both carbon and hydrogen together, such as $H_2O$, $HCl$, and $CO_2$.

Organic Compound

Compounds that contain both carbon and hydrogen and are synthesized by living organisms.

Heat Sink

A substance that absorbs and dissipates heat without a significant change in its own temperature, such as water.

Dehydration (Condensation Reaction)

A reaction that builds polymers from monomers by releasing water and forming a covalent bond.

Hydrolysis

A reaction that breaks down large molecules into smaller units by consuming water to split a covalent bond.

Salt

Substances that dissociate in water into ions other than $H^+$ or $OH^-$.

Acids

Electrolytes that dissociate in water and release hydrogen ions ($H^+$); known as proton donors.

Bases

Electrolytes that dissociate in water and release hydroxyl ions ($OH^-$); known as proton acceptors.

pH

A scale indicating the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution; below 7 is acidic, above 7 is basic.

Buffers

Solutions made of a weak conjugate acid-base pair that resist pH change by neutralizing small amounts of added acid or base.

Acidosis

A physiologic process that tends to cause acidemia ($pH < 7.35$) due to a build-up of acids or loss of base.

Alkalosis

A physiologic process that reflects blood and body fluids being too alkaline ($pH > 7.45$).

Monosaccharides

The basic building blocks of carbohydrates, including glucose, fructose, ribose, deoxyribose, and galactose.

Disaccharide

Carbohydrates formed via dehydration synthesis, including sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Polysaccharides

Large carbohydrates containing many monosaccharides, such as starches, glycogen, and cellulose (fiber).

Triglycerides

The most common dietary lipid group consisting of glycerol and three fatty acids; stored in adipose tissue.

Phospholipids

The main component of the plasma membrane, containing hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic phosphate heads.

Steroids

A type of lipid also known as a sterol; cholesterol is a key example.

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)

Known as 'bad cholesterol,' it creates blockages in arteries which can cause heart disease.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL)

Known as 'good cholesterol,' it protects the heart by transporting harmful cholesterol out of the arteries.

Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins, classified as essential (must be acquired from diet) or non-essential.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, memory, and regulating body movements.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter known for mood modulating effects; lack of it is linked to depression.

Fibrous proteins

Strong, durable proteins with a long, slender shape that act as structural components (e.g., collagen, keratin).

Globular proteins

Highly reactive proteins that are often involved in transport or catalysis, such as hemoglobin and enzymes.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

A double-stranded double helix compound that contains deoxyribose and stores genetic information.

RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

A single-stranded backbone studded with adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil bases.

mRNA (Messenger RNA)

A form of RNA that carries genetic instructions from DNA to the ribosomes during protein synthesis.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

A high-energy compound composed of ribose, adenine, and three phosphate groups used to fuel body activities.