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Reconstruction

The period from 1865 to 1877 during which the United States began to rebuild after the Civil War and included the process by which the federal government readmitted former Confederate states.

Freedman

Freed slaves who, after the Civil War, nearly 4 million of them, needed food, clothing, and jobs.

Lincoln's Ten-Percent Plan

A lenient Reconstruction plan proposing that when 10% of a state's 1860 voters pledged allegiance to the U.S. and abolished slavery, the state could be readmitted to the Union and create a new government.

Wade-Davis Bill

A stricter Reconstruction plan proposed by Radical Republicans, requiring a majority of a state's white male adults to pledge loyalty, only non-Confederate white males to vote for delegates to a constitutional convention, all new state constitutions to ban slavery, and barring former Confederates from holding office.

Ironclad Oath

An oath required by the Wade-Davis Bill, where individuals swore they had never in the past supported the Confederacy, as a condition for former Confederate states' re-admittance to the Union.

Pocket Veto

A legislative maneuver used by President Lincoln to block the Wade-Davis Bill by taking no action on it.

Military Reconstruction Acts of 1867

Acts that divided the South into five military districts, established new elections with voting mostly allowed by former slaves, and required states to ratify the 13th and 14th Amendments after drafting new state constitutions.

Johnson's Presidential Reconstruction

A lenient Reconstruction plan requiring a majority of voters in each southern state to swear loyalty to the U.S. and approve the 13th Amendment to rejoin the Union.

Freedman's Bureau

Created by Congress in March 1865 to help African Americans adjust to life after slavery by providing food, clothing, medical care, and setting up schools in the South.

Sharecropping

An agricultural system where many African Americans rented land from plantation owners in return for a share or percentage of the total crop produced.

Black Codes

Laws passed by Southern states after the 13th Amendment that limited the rights of African Americans.

Radical Republicans

Northern members of Congress, led by Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens, who opposed Lincoln's Ten-Percent plan and Johnson's plan, wanting to punish southern slave owners and ensure African Americans had the right to vote.

Graft

Gaining money illegally through politics in order to maximize the benefits to private interests.

14th Amendment

Ratified in 1868, it declared that all people born in the U.S. are citizens and no state may take away the rights of citizens.

15th Amendment

Ratified in 1870, it states that the right to vote cannot be denied to citizens because of their race or color or because they were once enslaved.

Ulysses S. Grant

The 18th President of the United States (1869-1877) who presided over the last half of Reconstruction, supported amnesty for Confederate leaders, and protected the civil rights of African Americans.

Amnesty

A pardon, specifically mentioned as supported by President Grant for Confederate leaders.

Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

A violent terrorist organization devoted to white supremacy, whose tactics Grant tried to suppress during Reconstruction.

Panic of 1873

An economic depression during Grant's presidency that caused scores of smaller banks to close and the stock market to plummet.

Scalawags

Southerners who became Republicans during Reconstruction.

Carpetbaggers

Northerner Republicans who moved to the South during Reconstruction.

Compromise of 1877

An agreement to settle the disputed Election of 1876, resulting in Rutherford B. Hayes becoming president and the end of military occupation of the South, leading to white Democrats taking control of southern state governments.

Redemption

The overthrow or defeat of Radical Republicans (white and black) by white Democrats, marking the end of the Reconstruction era in the South.

Poll Taxes

Laws passed in the South after Reconstruction to deny African Americans equal rights by requiring a fee to vote.

Literacy Tests

Laws passed in the South after Reconstruction to deny African Americans equal rights by requiring voters to pass a reading and writing test.

Grandfather Clauses

Laws passed in the South after Reconstruction that exempted individuals from poll taxes and literacy tests if their ancestors had been able to vote before 1866 or 1867, effectively disenfranchising African Americans.

Segregation

The systemic separation of people, often by race, in public and private life, enforced by laws like Jim Crow Laws after Reconstruction.

Jim Crow Laws

State and local laws enacted in the Southern and some border states from the late 19th to the mid-20th centuries, enforcing racial segregation.

Lynching

The extrajudicial killing of an individual by a mob, often targeting African Americans in the post-Reconstruction South.

Civil Rights Movement

A movement that began approximately 100 years after Reconstruction, dedicated to ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans and securing equal rights.

High Hat

A type of hat made of water-repellent beaver fur, partially driving the rush West.

John Jacob Astor

Created one of the largest fur businesses and became America’s first multimillionaire, establishing the first American settlement in the Oregon Country named Astoria.

Mountain Men

Fur traders and trappers who adopted Native American customs, clothing, and often married Native American women.

James “Jim” Beckwourth

An African American fur trader in the West, born a slave but raised by his white father.

Jedidiah Smith

One of the most skillful mountain men, known for surviving a bear mauling.

William Henry Ashley

Created a group of fur traders called Ashley’s Hundred and made fur trading more profitable by having his traders set up annual rendezvous for trade.

Oregon Trail (OT)

A 2,000-mile-long trail stretching from places like Independence, MO, to the Oregon Country, primarily used by young families traveling by wagon.

California Trail

A trail that forked off the Oregon Trail at the Rocky Mountains, leading to California.

Santa Fe Trail

A trail leading from Independence, MO, to Santa Fe, NM, used by Americans to trade manufacturing goods for horses, mules, and silver from Mexican traders.

Joseph Smith

Leader of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints who claimed to have found and translated golden tablets containing religious teachings (the Book of Mormon).

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

A religious group led by Joseph Smith, whose followers were often persecuted for their beliefs, including polygamy.

Book of Mormon

A set of golden tablets containing religious teachings, reportedly found and translated by Joseph Smith.

Polygamy

The practice of one man being married to several women at the same time, which was practiced by early Mormons and led to persecution.

Brigham Young

Became head of the Mormon church after Joseph Smith's murder and led Mormons to settle in Utah.

Mormon Trail

The route taken by many Mormons to reach their new home in Utah.

William Pope Duval

The first territorial governor of Florida when it became an American territory in 1821.

Tallahassee

Became the territorial capital of Florida in 1824, located between St. Augustine and Pensacola, meaning 'old town' or 'abandoned fields' in the Apalachee language.

Mestizos

People of Native American and Spanish ancestry, who participated in rebellions against Spain for Mexican independence.

Mexican Independence (1821)

Mexico gained independence from Spain after a growing rebellion, leading to a republican constitution.

Empresarios

Agents hired by the Mexican government to bring settlers to Texas, paid in land.

Stephen F. Austin

An empresario who started a Texas colony on the lower Colorado River, whose first 300 families were known as the Old Three Hundred.

Old Three Hundred

The first 300 families who settled in Stephen F. Austin's Texas colony.

General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Mexican general who suspended the Mexican constitution and focused on unrest in Texas, eventually leading to conflict.

Texas Revolution

The conflict that began when the Mexican army attempted to remove a cannon from Gonzales, TX, leading to Texas's declaration of independence.

Gonzales, TX skirmish

Site where settlers defied the Mexican army with a flag stating 'Come and take it,' marking the beginning of the Texas Revolution.

Republic of Texas

The independent nation created by Texans on March 2, 1836, with a declaration and constitution modeled after the U.S.

The Alamo

An abandoned mission near San Antonio occupied by Texan forces, where they held out for almost two weeks against Mexican forces led by Santa Anna.

Col. William Travis

Leader of the Texan forces who occupied the Alamo.

Davy Crockett

A U.S. volunteer who helped defend the Alamo.

Col. Jim Bowie

A U.S. volunteer who helped defend the Alamo.

Goliad Massacre

A later battle where Mexicans executed 350 Texan prisoners who had surrendered.

Battle of San Jacinto

A decisive battle on April 21, 1836, where Houston's forces surprised Santa Anna's camp, leading to Texan victory and Santa Anna's capture.

Texas Rangers

An organization formed by Texas to protect against Mexican and Native American attacks.

Manifest Destiny

The U.S.'s belief in its obvious fate to settle land all the way to the Pacific Ocean to spread democracy.

John O’Sullivan

First coined the term 'manifest destiny' in 1845.

"Fifty-four, Forty or Fight!"

A slogan used by American expansionists referencing the 54°40′ north latitude line as the desired U.S.-Canadian border.

Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1846)

A treaty that gave all of Oregon to the U.S.

Annexation of Texas

The process by which Texas was incorporated into the United States, approved by Congress in March 1845 and becoming a state in December 1845.

Vaqueros

Mexican cowboys who managed massive land grants in California given to the wealthiest settlers after Mexican independence.

Californios

Early settlers in California who felt little connection to the Mexican government due to their remote settlements.

Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo

A wealthy Californio who supported independence, served on the California State constitutional convention, and was a member of the 1st state Senates.

California banknotes (Cowhides)

Cowhides were so valuable in early California that they were known by this term.

John Slidell

Sent by President James Polk to Mexico to settle the border dispute and offer $30 million for land.

General Zachary Taylor

Ordered by President Polk to lead his army into the disputed region between the Nueces River and Rio Grande, leading to clashes with Mexican troops.

Nueces River vs. Rio Grande dispute

The border disagreement between Mexico (Nueces River) and the U.S. (Rio Grande) that contributed to the Mexican-American War.

General Stephen Kearny

Ordered by President Polk to attack New Mexico, taking the capital Santa Fe without a fight.

Bear Flag Revolt

A rebellion in 1846 where a small group of American settlers seized Sonoma, north of San Francisco, and declared California an independent nation.

Battle of Buena Vista

A battle in Feb. 1847 where U.S. and Mexican armies clashed; Mexico retreated, giving the U.S. control over Northern Mexico.

General Winfield Scott

Ordered by President Polk to take over after concern over Gen. Taylor’s popularity, leading successful campaigns including the Siege of Veracruz and the attack on Mexico City.

Siege of Veracruz

General Scott attacked Mexico's strongest fortress for 88 hours as part of the Mexican-American War.

Chapultepec

A fortified military school defended by young Mexican cadets during the U.S. attack on Mexico City.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Signed in February 1848, officially ending the Mexican-American War and transferring vast Mexican territory to the U.S.

Mexican Cession

The territory Mexico was forced to turn over to the U.S. after the Mexican-American War, including California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona and New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming.

Gadsden Purchase

The U.S. paid Mexico $10 million in exchange for receiving the southern parts of Arizona and New Mexico.

Water Rights in the West

Important due to scarcity; Brigham Young established strict codes for Mormons, setting an example for modern water laws that prioritized community needs over individual ownership.

John Sutter

Given permission to start a colony in 1839 near the Sacramento River, known for its hospitality and attracting American settlers.

Sutter’s Fort

A colony near the Sacramento River, established by John Sutter, known for hospitality.

Donner Party

A group of western travelers who became stranded in the Sierra Nevada Mountains in 1846 after trying to find a shortcut, leading to starvation and reports of cannibalism.

James Marshall

Discovered gold on the ground while building a sawmill for John Sutter near a river, sparking the California Gold Rush.

"Oro! Oro! Oro!"

Spanish for 'Gold! Gold! Gold!', shouted by a Spanish-speaking Native American after holding a gold nugget, spreading the news of gold in California.

Forty-niners

About 80,000 people from all over America and the world who came to San Francisco between 1848 and 1850 to search for gold.

Prospecting

The act of searching for gold, often done along banks of streams or in shallow surface mines.

Placer Mining

The most popular method for mining during the Gold Rush, using pans or other devices to wash gold nuggets out of loose rock and gravel.

Biddy Mason

An African American woman brought to CA as a slave who gained freedom, purchased land, and became one of the wealthiest landowners in Los Angeles and a community leader/philanthropist.

Boomtown

A fast-growing community that sprang up during the Gold Rush, often characterized by high prices charged by merchants.

Levi Strauss

A merchant who became wealthy during the Gold Rush by selling durable denim jeans to miners.

Chinese Immigrants (California Gold Rush)

Around 24,000 Chinese men moved to California between 1849-1853 due to famine and economic hardship; they faced discrimination and high taxes on foreign miners.