Classical and Operant Conditioning: Key Concepts and Learning Processes

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that unconditionally-naturally/automatically triggers an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Response

A learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight Learning

Solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others.

Modeling

The process of observing/imitating a behavior.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

Discrimination

Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus.

Biological Preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have a survival value.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable (reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable (punishing) consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber

A chamber containing a bar/key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping

Operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus; any stimulus that when presented after a response strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping/reducing an aversive stimulus; any stimulus that when removed after a response strengthens the response.

Primary Reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Conditioned Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Continuous Reinforcer

Reinforcing a desired response each time it occurs.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcer

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Learning Process

Acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information/behaviors.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together; they may be two stimuli or a response and its consequence.

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.

Cognitive Learning

Acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, watching others, or through language.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian)

A type of learning where we link two or more stimuli; as a result, the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of a second stimulus.

Behaviorism

View that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)(UR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.