Introduction to Psychology: Key Concepts and Theories

Cognitive Factors

Internal mental processes and intellectual abilities.

Temperament

Inherent emotional and personality traits.

External Social Factors

Influences from the external environment and societal context.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

William James

The first American psychologist.

Structuralism

Founded by Willhelm Wundt in the 1880s, focused on elements of consciousness.

1879

When did William Wundt found the first psych lab in Germany.?

Introspection

Process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible.

Edward Tichener

Student of Wundt who continued his legacy.

Functionalism

Founded by William James in the 1880s, focused on the whole of behavior rather than smaller components.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Founded by Sigmund Freud in the 1910s, emphasizing unconscious experiences and childhood influences.

Gestalt Psychology

Focuses on the whole unified patterns rather than individual parts.

Humanism

A perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

So long as basic needs are met, higher level needs would begin to motivate behavior.

Behaviorism

A psychological approach from the 1920s-1940s focusing on observable behavior.

Mary Calkins

Blocked from getting PhD, studied memory and learning, unofficial student of William James.

Margaret Floy Washburn

First American woman to get a PhD in psychology and became president of APA.

Dr Kenneth and Dr Mamie Clark

First black president of the APA, known for the doll study showing internalized racism.

Francis Summer

First African American to receive a PhD in psychology.

Cognitive Revolution

Focus on the mind, reincorporating mental functioning.

Multicultural Psychology

Psychologists develop theories and conduct research with diverse populations in one country.

Cross Cultural Psychology

Psychologists compare populations across countries, such as China vs USA.

Biopsychology

Explores biological influences on behavior, focusing on the immediate cause of behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology

Focuses on how human behaviors and mental processes have evolved.

Forensic Psychology

Application to legal matters.

Developmental Psychology

How humans change and develop.

Industrial Psychology

Focus on behavior of employees in the workplace.

Empirical

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed repeatedly.

Inductive Reasoning

Moves from specifics to generalities.

Deductive Reasoning

Moves from general principles to specifics.

Correlational Research

Variables measured but not manipulated like they would be in an experiment.

Correlation Coefficient

+1 indicates a perfect positive correlation, -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, 0 indicates no correlation.

Correlation does not mean causation

A statement indicating that a correlation between two variables does not imply that one causes the other.

Confounding variable

A variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable causing a spurious association.

Illusory correlations

When people believe a relationship exists when no such one exists.

Experiments

Research method where one variable is controlled to observe its effect on another variable.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention.

Tuskegee Study

A study where African American men with syphilis were not informed or treated, only studied.

Ethics

Guidelines that govern the conduct of research to ensure the welfare of participants.

Informed consent

The process of providing participants with information about the study to obtain their agreement.

Right to withdraw

The participant's right to leave a study at any time without penalty.

Theory

A well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct.

Predictability

The ability to anticipate behaviors, thoughts, or emotions based on certain variables.

Survey

A means of gathering data through a list of questions from a large sample of people.

Case study

An observational research method focusing on one person or a few individuals.

Operational definition

A precise description of the variables in an experiment.

Experimenter Bias

The possibility that a researcher's expectations might skew the results of the study.

Single blind study

A study where participants are unaware of which group they are in.

Double Blind Study

A study where both researchers and participants are unaware of group assignments.

Reliability

The ability to consistently produce the same result.

Validity

The accuracy of a measure.

Inter rater reliability

The degree to which two or more different observers agree on what has been observed.

Institutional Review Board

Who reviews proposals for research involving human participants?

Deception

Purposely misleading participants to maintain the integrity of the experiment without harm.

Allele

A specific version of a gene.

Dominant allele

An allele that expresses its trait even if only one copy is present.

Recessive allele

An allele that only expresses its trait if two copies are present.

Homozygous

Having two copies of the same allele.

Heterozygous

Having a combination of different alleles.

PKU

an inherited disorder that can cause intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDDs) if not treated. A condition that illustrates the complex relationship between genotype and phenotype influenced by environmental factors. The body can't process a portion of a protein called phenylalanine, which is in all foods containing protein. High levels of phenylalanine can cause brain damage.

Genotype

Genetic makeup

Phenotype

Your actual appearance/outcome

Neurons

Structure that receives and transmits information

Cell body

Soma

Dendrites

Receives messages from other cells

Axon

Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons (muscles, glands)

Action Potential

Electrical signal traveling down the axon

Myelin sheath

Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in myelin sheath made up of protein and fatty substances

Terminal buttons

The small knobs at the end of an axon that release chemicals called neurotransmitters

Action potential

All or nothing response that releases neurotransmitters

Outer Surface of neuron

Semipermeable membrane

Glial cells

Support functions, e.g., myelin sheath

Synaptic cleft

Small space between neurons

Psychoactive drugs

Can enhance or block effects of neurotransmitters

Agonists

Mimic a neurotransmitter

Antagonists

Block neurotransmitter activity

Serotonin

Mood, appetite, sleep; lower levels = depression

Reuptake

Unused neurotransmitter is taken back up into the neuron

Reuptake inhibitors

Block the process of reuptake

SSRI

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Synapse

Gap between neurons

Axon terminals

Release neurotransmitters; receiving neurons pick it up

Phineas Gage

Injury changed his personality by hitting the frontal lobe

Brain Plasticity

The idea that our brain can rewire after injury, stroke, surgery

CNS

Central nervous system; brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body

Somatic

Sensory and motor (voluntary)

Autonomic

Internal organs (involuntary)

Sympathetic branch

Fight or flight (activated by stress)

Parasympathetic system

Rest / calm

Homeostasis

Equilibrium and balance

Mammalian Brain

Built in layers, develops from inside out

Cerebral cortex

Largest part of brain, bumpy part on outside of the brain

Gyri

Folds or bumps on the brain

Sulci

Grooves on the brain